<p>Ciudad Perdida  is the archaeological site of an ancient city in Colombia&#39;s Sierra Nevada. It is believed to have been founded about 800 CE, some 650 years earlier than Machu Picchu. This location is also known as Teyuna and Buritaca.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Ciudad Perdida was discovered in 1972, when a group of local treasure looters found a series of stone steps rising up the mountainside and followed them to an abandoned city which they named "Green Hell" or "Wide Set". When gold figurines and ceramic urns from this city began to appear in the local black market, archaeologists headed by the director of the Instituto Colombiano de Antropologia reached the site in 1976 and completed reconstruction between 1976-1982.</p><br>
<p>Members of local tribes—the Arhuaco, the Koguis and the Wiwas—have stated that they visited the site regularly before it was widely discovered, but had kept quiet about it. They call the city Teyuna and believe it was the heart of a network of villages inhabited by their forebears, the Tairona. Ciudad Perdida was probably the region&#39;s political and manufacturing center on the Buritaca River and may have housed 2,000 to 8,000 people. It was apparently abandoned during the Spanish conquest.</p><br>
<p>Ciudad Perdida consists of a series of 169 terraces carved into the mountainside, a net of tiled roads and several small circular plazas. The entrance can only be accessed by a climb up some 1,200 stone steps through dense jungle.</p><br>
<p>The area is now completely safe but was at one time affected by the Colombian armed conflict between the Colombian National Army, right-wing paramilitary groups and left-wing guerrilla groups like National Liberation Army (ELN) and Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC). On September 15, 2003, ELN kidnapped eight foreign tourists visiting Ciudad Perdida, demanding a government investigation into human rights abuses in exchange for their hostages. ELN released the last of the hostages three months later. The United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia (AUC), the paramilitary right-wing groups in that country, continued attacking aborigines and non-aborigines in the zone for a while. For some time the zone has been free of incidents.</p><br>
<p>In 2005, tourist hikes became operational again and there have been no problems since then. The Colombian army actively patrols the area, which is now deemed to be very safe for visitors and there have not been any more kidnappings. For a six day return hike to the lost city, the cost is approximately US$300. The hike is about 75 km of walking in total, and requires a good level of fitness. The hike includes a number of river crossings and steep climbs and descents. It is a moderately difficult hike.</p><br>
<p>Since 2009, non-profit organization Global Heritage Fund (GHF) has been working in Ciudad Perdida to preserve and protect the historic site against climate, vegetation, neglect, looting, and unsustainable tourism. GHF&#39;s stated goals include the development and implementation of a regional Management Plan, documentation and conservation of the archaeological features at Ciudad Perdida and the engagement of the local indigenous communities as major stakeholders in the preservation and sustainable development of the site.</p><br>
<p>Lake Couchiching, from the Ojibwe gojijiing meaning "inlet", is a medium-sized lake in Central Ontario separated from Lake Simcoe by a narrow channel. The Trent-Severn Waterway enters Lake Simcoe by the Talbot River and exits this lake by the Severn River which empties into Georgian Bay. The lake is 16 km long, slightly less than 5 km wide and fairly shallow with an average depth of six metres. The city of Orillia is located on the narrow channel connecting this lake with Lake Simcoe.</p><br>
<p>Lakes Simcoe and Couchiching are popular spots for fishing in summer and ice fishing in winter.</p><br>
<p>Singer-songwriter Gordon Lightfoot paid homage to the lake in the song Couchiching.</p><br>
<p>The Couchiching Institute on Public Affairs holds its annual conference on the shores of the lake every August. Camp Couchiching is also located near the lake.</p><br>
<h2>Water quality</h2><br>
<p>In a 2012 study, the lake showed a microalgae density of 2.4 × 10^7/cm^2, with a high species diversity. The lake showed low total phosphorus and high organic carbon content, when compared to Lake Simcoe.</p><br>
<p>Hueco Tanks is an area of low mountains in El Paso County, Texas, in the United States. It is located in a high-altitude desert basin between the Franklin Mountains to the west and the Hueco Mountains to the east. Hueco is a Spanish word meaning hollows and refers to the many water-holding depressions in the boulders and rock faces throughout the region. Due to the unique concentration of historic artifacts, plants and wildlife, the site is under protection of Texas law; it is a crime to remove, alter, or destroy them.</p><br>
<p>Hueco Tanks State Historic Site is located approximately 32 mi northeast of El Paso, Texas, accessible via El Paso&#39;s Montana Avenue (U.S. Highway 62/U.S. Highway 180), by turning at RM 2775. The park consists of three syenite (a weak form of granite) mountains; it is 860 acre in area and is popular for recreation such as birding and bouldering.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The park has gone through considerable changes during private ownership. The names of Texas Rangers and of US Cavalrymen, as well as Native American artifacts and paintings, attest to its historic nature.</p><br>
<p>Human habitation of the area dates back 10,000 years with the arrival of the Desert Archaic Culture. These people would have eaten mesquite beans, banana yucca and cactus fruits in Hueco Tanks. Agriculture was introduced in the area sometime around 1000 A.D. and along with it, the development of the Jornada Mogollon Culture.</p><br>
<p>Later the area was occupied by Mescalero and Lipan Apaches and Jumano Indians. Also using the area were Comanche, Kiowa and Tiguas. Spanish and Mexican travelers were rare visitors to the area. The Kiowa called the area the Tso-doi-gyata-de-dee, meaning "rock cave where they were surrounded." In 1837, the Kiowa signed a treaty with the United States, however, shortly after Mexican soldiers forced them into a six day siege in Hueco Tanks, during which most of them died. The earliest known modern graffiti dates back to the 1840s.</p><br>
<p>The area was visited by United States Boundary Commissioner, John R. Bartlett, in 1852 who recorded some of the pictographs. Silverio Escontrías bought the land from Armendariz in 1898 and the family used it as a ranch and tourist attraction until 1956. The early El Paso Archaeological Society (EPAS) began to campaign for the land to be turned into a park and in 1935, the National Park Service offered to buy the land from the Escontrías family, but they refused. Fort Bliss leased land from the Escontrías family for training purposes in the 1940s and 50s. The ranch went on the real estate market in 1956 and during this time, members of archaeological and historical societies raised awareness of the area&#39;s significance. El Paso County took over the land in the mid-1960s.In 1968, it was discussed whether or not the park should be turned over to the Tiguas. In 1969, the El Paso County commissioners decided to deed the park to the Texas Parks and Wildlife Commission. It was made a Texas State Park in 1970. The park&#39;s information center was made from the old Escontrías ranch house. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1971. Archaeological excavations conducted by George Kegley took place in the area between 1972 and 1973. The park was named the Hueco Tanks State Historic Site in 1998.</p><br>
<h2>Pictographs</h2><br>
<p>The first paintings made at Hueco Tanks were done by members of the Desert Archaic Culture and which depicted abstract designs. These were created between 6000 and 3000 B.C. Between 3000 BC and 450 A.D., pictures of animals and humans were drawn on the rocks.</p><br>
<p>Most of the pictographs at Hueco Tanks are of Jornada Mogollon origin. The drawings may have been used in praying for rain. The Jornada&#39;s religion was influenced by Mesoamerican religions. Many of the Hueco Tanks drawings depicted Tlaloc, a rain god and Quetzalcoatl.</p><br>
<p>Modern graffiti by Anglo people started appearing when someone painted "1849" over some of the original pictographs.</p><br>
<p>The first scientific overview of the rock paintings at Hueco Tanks happened in the summer of 1939 with Forrest and Lula Kirkland recording the art. Most of the colors used in the paintings came from minerals in the area. The paintings themselves became bound to the rock through the aging process.</p><br>
<p>In 1972, the El Paso Archaeological Society (EPAS) and the Anthropology Club of the University of Texas at El Paso (UTEP) systematically documented the drawings, their current conditions and sometimes relocated and inspected the rock art. The project discovered 300 previously unrecorded pictographs. The findings of their work was published in A Rock Art Inventory at Hueco Tanks State Park (1974). In 1988, park ranger Dave Parker and archeologist Ron Ralph plotted the location of all known pictographs. A digital database of the art and its GPS coordinates was started in 1999 with Robert Mark and Evelyn Billo.</p><br>
<h2>Geology and wildlife</h2><br>
<p>The syenite pluton was formed 34-38 million years ago, as part of a larger range, the Hueco Mountains, which range in age to over 320 million years ago, when this area was covered by an inland sea. The pluton was eventually exposed through weathering to form the rock formations visible today, which jut from the desert floor. The tanks were once capable of containing a year&#39;s supply of water.</p><br>
<p>Around the syenite outcrops, the park is surrounded by Chihuahuan Desert Scrub with creosote bush as the dominant species. The site contains enough water to support live oaks and junipers, species which survive from the last ice age. Other trees found in the area include hackberry, Texas mulberry, Mexican buckeye, Gregg acacia and Arizona oak. Hueco Tanks has the only population in the United States of the plant, Colubrina stricta.</p><br>
<p>Freshwater shrimp and spadefoot toads survive at the site (for this reason, visitors are cautioned against touching the pools of water at Hueco Tanks to avoid destroying the eggs of the animals of the site, for example). Other amphibians seen in the park include barred tiger salamanders. Around 30 different species of reptiles live in the area. In 2002, 222 different species of bird were documented in the site during the year. Migratory birds such as waterfowl and songbirds pass through during migration seasons. Several birds such as the prairie falcon, burrowing owl, white throated swift, black-chinned hummingbird, ash throated flycatcher, Crissal thrasher, blue grosbeak, Scott&#39;s oriole and lesser goldfinch all likely breed in the area. The park is home today to mule deer, black bears, bobcats, gray fox, coyotes, badgers, ringtails, skunks, raccoons, mountain lions, black-tailed jackrabbits, desert cottontail, eastern cottontail, six species of bat and twenty species of rodents.</p><br>
<h2>Rock climbing</h2><br>
<p>Hueco Tanks is also widely regarded as one of the best areas in the world for bouldering (rock climbing, low enough to attempt without ropes for protection), unique for its rock type, the concentration and quality of the climbing. In any given climbing season, which generally lasts from October through March, it is common for climbers from across Europe, Asia, and Australia to visit the park. In February an outdoor bouldering competition known as the Hueco Rock Rodeo is held. The event is a world class outdoor competition that attracts many professional climbers every year. Since implementation of the Public Use Plan, following a brief closure of the entire park due to the park service&#39;s inability to manage the growing crowds of international climbers, more than 2/3 of the park is restricted to tours by volunteer or commercial guides. Only North Mountain is accessible without guides, and then only for about 70 people at any given time, except on the south side at ground level, which is closed to the public. The park offers camping and showers for about $7.00 a day or, as is most popular for climbers, the nearby Hueco Rock Ranch offers camping where climbers can relax and socialize. This is also where commercial guides can be found, and where many volunteer guides stay during the climbing season.</p><br>
<p>The Willamette Falls is a natural waterfall on the Willamette River between Oregon City and West Linn, Oregon, in the United States. It is the largest waterfall in the American Pacific Northwest by volume, and the seventeenth widest in the world. Horseshoe in shape, it is 1,500 ft wide and 40 ft high with a flow of 30,849 cu ft/s , located 26 mi upriver from the Willamette&#39;s mouth.</p><br>
<p>Until 2011 a canal and set of locks allowed vessels to pass into the main Willamette Valley. Those locks are now closed.</p><br>
<h2>Human history</h2><br>
<p>Native American legends taught that the falls were placed there by a great god so that their people would have fish to eat all winter. Many local tribes built villages in the area because of the abundance of salmon that could only pass the falls at certain water levels. Native Americans still harvest Pacific Lamprey at the falls each year in the early summer. Willamette Falls is a traditional fishing site for the Warm Springs Indians as well as other tribes.</p><br>
<p>It was first discovered by European fur traders in 1810. John McLoughlin established a land claim at the falls in the name of the Hudson&#39;s Bay Company in 1829. Oregon City was established in 1842 near the east end of the falls. The town of Linn City was founded on the western shore one year later in 1843. The two towns competed economically, vying for the lucrative steamboat traffic and the trade it generated. With the falls representing the end of the line for boat traffic, river boat captains were forced to choose a side of the river on which they would dock to unload their passengers and goods; some of which would continue their upriver journey on winding portage toll roads. Competition between the towns was fierce until the Great Flood of 1862. Oregon City was inundated and badly damaged, but the unluckier Linn City was obliterated.</p><br>
<p>Navigating past the falls was not possible until the completion of the Willamette Falls Locks in 1873. During construction of the locks, channels were blasted from the very rocks that formerly supported the town of Linn City. Along with the locks, the modern city of West Linn sits on a portion of the former town site. The locks were sold by the Willamette Falls Canal and Locks Company to the United States Army Corps of Engineers in 1915.</p><br>
<h3>Modern history</h3><br>
<p>The Willamette Falls Electric Company (later renamed Portland General Electric) was formed in 1888 to build a hydro-electric generation facility at the falls. Four turbine driven dynamos were built on the east end of the falls. A 14-mile (23-kilometre) long transmission line to Portland was built, becoming 1889 the United States&#39; first long distance transmission of electrical energy. In 1895 Portland General Electric built a second generation station on the west side of the falls. The newer plant, Station B, is still in operation with a capacity of 14,000 kilowatts. The old plant is currently part of the Blue Heron Paper Company.</p><br>
<p>The falls have been home to several paper mills beginning with the Oregon City Paper Manufacturing Co. in 1866. The Willamette Pulp and Paper Co. opened on the West Linn side during 1889. The ownership of the mills has changed several times. The last two remaining mills in 2011 were owned by the West Linn Paper Company and the Blue Heron Paper Company, but the latter closed its mill in February 2011. The Blue Heron site has subsequently been auctioned off, for redevelopment. The milling facilities were sold to a Canadian investment firm, NRI Global, Inc., which has begun work removing the old machinery and cleaning the grounds of contamination. An agreement for the sale of the site itself was announced in June 2013, but later fell apart. In May 2014, another developer, George Heidgerken, purchased the property. Plans for redevelopment of the site were being developed in fall 2014.</p><br>
<p>The industrialization of the area led to diminishing salmon and steelhead runs, prompting the construction of a fish ladder in 1882. A new fish ladder, built in 1971, is currently operated by the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife. The estimated spring chinook salmon run for 2007 is 52,000. The industrialization has also precluded public access to the base of the waterfall for well over a century, but as of 2017 a process to redevelop the Blue Heron Paper Mill site and provide public access to the area, including a river walk, is underway.</p><br>
<h2>Details</h2><br>
<p>The falls is a horseshoe shaped block waterfall caused by a basalt shelf in the river floor. The 40 ft (12 m) high and 1500 ft (457 m) wide falls occur 26 river miles (42 km) upstream from the Willamette&#39;s confluence with the Columbia River. Operated by the USA Army Corps of Engineers, the lock is a four lock canal and was the oldest continuous operating, multiple lift navigation canal in the United States.</p><br>
<p>The public can view the falls from viewpoints on the bluffs of Oregon City, from a signed viewpoint along Highway 99E, from the Oregon City Bridge, from a viewpoint on northbound I-205, or from boats in the river.</p><br>
<p>Fort Gadsden is located in Franklin County, Florida, on the Apalachicola River. The site contains the ruins of two forts, and has been known by several other names at various times, including Prospect Bluff Fort, Nicholls Fort, Blount&#39;s Fort, Fort Blount, British Post, Negro Fort, African Fort, and Fort Apalachicola.</p><br>
<p>Listed in the National Register of Historic Places, the Fort Gadsden Historic Site is located in Apalachicola National Forest and is managed by the USA Forest Service. It was named a National Historic Landmark in 1972.</p><br>
<h2>Original fort</h2><br>
<p>During the War of 1812, the British hoped to recruit the Seminole as allies in their war against the United States. In August 1814, a force of over 100 officers and men led by a lieutenant colonel of the Royal Marines, Edward Nicolls, was sent into the Apalachicola River region in Spanish Florida, where they began to aid and train local Native Americans. Although Nicolls claimed he rallied large numbers of Native Americans, his efforts bore little fruit in terms of fighting, and the completion of the war ended his mission a few months after his arrival.</p><br>
<p>In late November 1814, United States Major Uriah Blue, commanding a 1000-man force of Mississippi militia, Chickasaw and Choctaw warriors, left Fort Montgomery (east of Mobile and west of Pensacola),</p><br>
<p>to seek out and to destroy the Red Stick Creeks. Present among the force was Creek War veteran Davy Crockett. Being unfamiliar with the territory, and being short of provisions, Major Blue&#39;s force did not find the fort, and returned to Fort Montgomery on January 9, 1815.</p><br>
<p>Before Nicolls left East Florida, he built a fort at Prospect Bluff, 15 miles above the mouth of the Apalachicola River and sixty miles below USA territory, which he equipped with cannon, guns, and ammunition. The fort, originally known as the British Post, served as a base for British troops and for recruitment of ex-slaves into the new Corps of Colonial Marines, and as a rallying point to encourage the local Seminole to attack the United States. When the British evacuated Florida in the spring of 1815, they left the well-constructed and fully armed fort on (the east bank of) the Apalachicola River in the hands of their allies, about 400 fugitive slaves, including members of the disbanded Corps of Colonial Marines, and a sizable number of native Indians. News of the "Negro Fort" (as it came to be called) attracted as many as 800 black fugitives who settled in the surrounding area. The blacks developed plantations extending up to 50 miles along the river.</p><br>
<p>In September 1815, US Indian Agent Benjamin Hawkins sent a group of 200 men to attack the fort at Prospect Bluff. The attack failed, thereby lulling the inhabitants of into a false sense of security. Under the command of a black man named Garson and a Choctaw chief (whose name is unknown), the inhabitants of Negro Fort launched raids across the Georgia border. The fort, located as it was near the USA border, was seen as a threat to Southern slavery. The USA considered it "a center of hostility and above all a threat to the security of their slaves."</p><br>
<p>The Savannah Journal wrote of it:</p><br>
<p>It was not to be expected, that an establishment so pernicious to the Southern States, holding out to a part of their population temptations to insubordination, would have been suffered to exist after the close of the war. In the course of last winter, several slaves from this neighborhood fled to that fort; others have lately gone from Tennessee and the Mississippi Territory. How long shall this evil, requiring immediate remedy, be permitted to exist?</p><br>
<h2>Seminole Wars</h2><br>
<p>In early 1816 the USA built Fort Scott on the west bank of the Flint River in the southern part of Georgia to guard the United States border between the state and Spanish Florida. Supplying the fort, however, was a problem; to take materials overland required traveling through unsettled wilderness. Major General Andrew Jackson, the military commander of the southern district, preferred supplying Fort Scott by boat using the Apalachicola River in Spanish territory. This was both easier and provided a likely casus belli for destroying Negro Fort. As expected, when a US naval force attempted the passage on July 17, 1816, it was fired on by the garrison at Negro Fort, and four U. S. soldiers were killed.</p><br>
<p>Ten days later, Andrew Jackson ordered Brigadier General Edmund P. Gaines at Fort Scott to destroy Negro Fort. The American expedition included Creek Indians from Coweta, who were induced to join by the promise that they would get what they could salvage from the fort if they helped in its capture. On July 27, 1816, following a series of skirmishes, the American forces and their Creek allies launched an all-out attack under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Duncan Clinch, with support from a naval convoy commanded by Sailing Master Jarius Loomis.</p><br>
<p>According to historian William Cooper Nell, the freedmen refused to surrender and submit themselves back into slavery, and cries of "Give me liberty, or give me death!" were repeated several times throughout the day. The two sides exchanged cannon fire, but the shots of the inexperienced black gunners failed to hit their targets. A "hot shot" (a cannonball heated to a red glow) from the American forces entered the opening to the fort&#39;s powder magazine, igniting an explosion that was heard more than 100 miles (160 km) away in Pensacola, and destroyed the fort, killing all but 30 of 300 occupants. Garson, the Freedman commander, and the Choctaw chief, among the few who survived, were handed over to the Creeks, who shot Garson and scalped the chief. African-American survivors were returned to slavery.</p><br>
<p>The Creek salvaged 2,500 muskets, 50 carbines, 400 pistols, and 500 swords from the ruins of the fort, increasing their power in the region. The Seminole, who had fought alongside the blacks, were conversely weakened by the loss of their allies. The Creek participation in the attack increased tension between the two tribes. Seminole anger at the Americans for the fort&#39;s destruction contributed to the breakout of the First Seminole War a year later.</p><br>
<p>Spain protested the violation of its soil, but according to historian John K. Mahon, it "lacked the power to do more."</p><br>
<h2>Rebuilt fort</h2><br>
<p>In 1818 General Jackson directed Lieutenant James Gadsden to rebuild the fort, which he did on a nearby site. Jackson was so pleased with the result that he named the location Fort Gadsden.</p><br>
<p>During the American Civil War, Confederate troops occupied the fort until July 1863, when an outbreak of malaria forced its abandonment.</p><br>
<p>Redoubt Volcano, or Mount Redoubt, is an active stratovolcano in the largely volcanic Aleutian Range of the USA state of Alaska. Located at the head of the Chigmit Mountains subrange in Lake Clark National Park and Preserve, the mountain is just west of Cook Inlet, in the Kenai Peninsula Borough about 180 km  southwest of Anchorage. At 10,197 feet , in just over 5 miles  Mount Redoubt attains 9,150 feet  of prominence over its surrounding terrain. It is the highest summit in the Aleutian Range.</p><br>
<p>Active for millennia, Mount Redoubt has erupted four times since it was first observed: in 1902, 1966, 1989 and 2009, with two questionable eruptions in 1881 and 1933. The eruption in 1989 spewed volcanic ash to a height of 45,000 ft (14,000 m). It caught KLM Flight 867, a Boeing 747 aircraft, in its plume. After the plane descended 13,000 feet, the pilots restarted the engines and landed the plane safely at Anchorage. The ash blanketed an area of about 7,700 sq mi (20,000 km). The 1989 eruption is also notable for being the first ever volcanic eruption to be successfully predicted by the method of long-period seismic events developed by Swiss/American volcanologist Bernard Chouet. As of August 2015, the Alaska Volcano Observatory has rated Redoubt as Aviation Alert Level Green and Volcano Alert Level Normal.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The official name of the mountain is Redoubt Volcano, a translation of the Russian name "Sopka Redutskaya", referring to, as does the word "redoubt", "a fortified place". A local name, "Ujakushatsch", also means "fortified place", but it is difficult to determine if one name is derived from the other. The Board on Geographic Names decided on the name "Redoubt Volcano" in 1891.</p><br>
<p>The Global Volcanism Program of the Smithsonian Institution refers to the mountain simply as "Redoubt", and lists the following as alternate names: Burnt Mountain, Goreloi, Mirando, Ujakushatsch, Viesokaia and Yjakushatsch.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The volcano is about 3.7 mi in diameter at its base with a rough volume of 7.2 to 8.4 mi3. The sides of the upper cone are relatively steep (in comparison to volcanoes in general). Made up of pyroclastic flow deposits and lava flows, and resting on Mesozoic era rocks of the Aleutian Mountain Range batholith, the mountain has been somewhat weathered by movement of several glaciers that reside on it. The current main vent is on the north side of the crater by the head of the Drift glacier. Also present on the mountain are Holocene lahar deposits that extend as far as the Cook Inlet. This mountain has produced andesite, basalt and dacite, with relatively silicic andesite dominant in recent eruptions.</p><br>
<h2>Eruptions</h2><br>
<h3>Early reports</h3><br>
<p>Captain James Cook saw Mt. Redoubt during the summer of 1778, describing it as "emitting a white smoke but no fire which made some think it was no more than a white thick cloud such as we have frequently seen on the Coast, for the most part appearing on the sides of hills and often extends along a whole range and at different times falls or rises, expands or contracts itself and has a resemblance to Clouds of white smoke. But this besides being too small for one of those clouds, remained as it were fixed in the same spot for the whole time the Mountain was clear which was above 48 hours." However, several sources call this a "discredited eruption". There are several other of these activities that are not called eruptions.</p><br>
<p>In 1819, smoke was observed at the mountain. However, this is often not recorded as an eruption as the information was insufficient to identify it as such. Similarly, in 2003, a blowing cloud of snow was mistaken by an employee of the ConocoPhillips Building in Anchorage for an ash plume. Possible steam-vapor let off was observed in 1933 at the mountain.</p><br>
<h3>1881</h3><br>
<p>There was apparently an eruption described as "to the eastward, Redoubt Volcano, 11,060 ft high, is constantly smoking, with periods of exaggerated activity. Fire has been seen issuing from its summit far out at sea. A great eruption took place in 1881, when a party of native hunters half-way up its slopes were overwhelmed by a lava-flow and only two escaped." However, this eruption is not well documented by other sources.</p><br>
<h3>1902</h3><br>
<p>The volcano erupted rather abruptly in 1902, spewing out ash from January 18 to June 21 in the year. A local newspaper stated, "Word has just been received that Redoubt, one of the volcanoes at Cooks Inlet had an eruption on January 18, and the country for 150 mi around was covered with ashes and lava. The news comes from Sunrise, but nothing definite has been ascertained as to whether any damage was done, for no boats have as yet been in the neighborhood of the volcano." There were many other news reports on the eruption, one describing the eruption as "a terrific earthquake which burst the mountain asunder leaving a large gap," which could possibly suggest the crack formation in the volcanos crater, however, it is unlikely. Supposedly, the volcano was ejecting "flames" from its caldera, and the eruption terrified natives in the area. Newspapers seemed to suggest that the ash had traveled for more than 150 mi, reaching the opposite side of the Cook Inlet.</p><br>
<h3>1989–1990</h3><br>
<p>The volcano erupted on December 14, 1989, and continued to erupt for over six months.</p><br>
<p>Since lahars were produced repeatedly, scientists realized that they could use these to analyze a trial period for a newly developed device proposed to measure the movement of rocks against each other. This device, now known as an Acoustic Flow Monitor, alerts nearby stations to possible lahars.</p><br>
<p>The eruption also caused an airliner to have all four engines fail after a Boeing 747-400 jumbo jet operated by KLM Royal Dutch Airlines flew into a cloud of volcanic ash.</p><br>
<p>Damage from the eruption was estimated at $160 million, the second costliest volcanic eruption in United States history.</p><br>
<h3>2009</h3><br>
<h4>Pre-eruption</h4><br>
<p>On January 30, 2009, scientists from the Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO) warned that an eruption was imminent, sending experienced Alaskans shopping for protection against a dusty shower of volcanic ash that could descend on south-central Alaska.</p><br>
<p>By January 31, volcanic earthquakes increased to several per hour, and a large hole in the glacier on the side of the mountain was spotted. Scientists began to monitor seismic data from the mountain twenty-four hours a day in an effort to warn people in nearby communities. A flyover conducted by the AVO detected "significant steaming from a new melt depression at the mouth of the summit crater near the vent area of the 1989-90 eruption."</p><br>
<h4>March 15</h4><br>
<p>Seismic activity at Redoubt increased beginning about 13:01 ATZ. An AVO observation flight reported that a steam and ash plume rose as high as 15,000 ft above sea level and produced minor ash fall on the upper south flank of Redoubt. Later reports were that the plume was then mainly steam.</p><br>
<p>On the basis of this change in activity, AVO increased the level of concern and alert level to ORANGE/WATCH.</p><br>
<h4>Emissions</h4><br>
<p>The material ejected from the volcano mainly consisted of water vapor, along with smaller amounts of carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide. Further study by airborne monitors suggests that the materials were not oxidized much, and little of the concentration contained sulfates, less than 20%.</p><br>
<h4>Large scale eruptions begin</h4><br>
<p>Mount Redoubt erupted explosively late in the evening of March 22, 2009. AVO has recorded numerous volcanic eruptions and/or explosions at Redoubt volcano.</p><br>
<p>The Atlanta Cyclorama and Civil War Museum was a civil war museum located in Atlanta, Georgia, its most noted attraction being the Atlanta Cyclorama, a cylindrical panoramic painting of the Civil War Battle of Atlanta.</p><br>
<p>Modern media, such as IMAX, rendered this sort of portrayal obsolete.</p><br>
<p>It is currently closed to the public. The Atlanta History Center is in the process of restoring The Battle of Atlanta painting and relocating it to its Buckhead property. The restoration process began in 2015. The plan is to open the building in 2017 to allow the public to view the ongoing restoration of The Battle of Atlanta painting, with a full opening and dedication following in 2018. Once the painting has been fully restored, Atlanta residents, tourists, and other visitors can see The Battle of Atlanta as it was originally intended to be viewed when it was painted in 1886, a hyperbolic or hourglass shape.</p><br>
<h2>Atlanta Cyclorama</h2><br>
<p>Paying visitors viewed the cylindrical painting from the inside, entering through an entrance in the floor. After being seated, the central cylinder rotates slowly, affording a view of the entire painting. The painting at one time was the largest oil painting in the world, and if unrolled would measure 42 ft high by 358 ft long. It held this record until 1894, when it was surpassed in size by The Racławice Panorama (15 × 114 meter, 49 ft × 374 ft) a cycloramic painting depicting the Battle of Racławice.</p><br>
<p>The Cyclorama was narrated at one time by volunteers, some of whom were veterans or widows of veterans of the Civil War. In 1960, Atlanta Mayor William B. Hartsfield accepted the donation of a recorded narration written by Junius Andrew Park, Jr., in honor of his father, Junius Andrew Park, Sr., who was born and raised in Atlanta. Research was done by Lurline Richardson Park, the writer&#39;s wife. The narration was musically scored by Atlanta musician Sam T. Wilhoit, and the narration was read by Hollywood actor Victor Jory, who appeared in the original motion picture Gone with the Wind. All parties donated their time and labor. In later years, a revised narration was produced and narrated by actor Shepperd Strudwick.</p><br>
<h2>Civil War museum</h2><br>
<p>The museum displayed pictures and artifacts from the Civil War, including the Texas, a steam locomotive that pursued the captured train the General in the Great Locomotive Chase during the war. This raid was depicted in the 1927 Buster Keaton film The General and the 1956 Disney film The Great Locomotive Chase.</p><br>
<p>A movie theater inside the museum showed a short film about the Atlanta Campaign, narrated by James Earl Jones, to visitors before they view the painting. The cyclorama painting itself is augmented by a three-dimensional diorama in front of the painting and a narration of the events of the battle and the history of the painting. A popular story concerning the diorama involves actor Clark Gable. During the celebrations surrounding the opening of the film Gone with the Wind, the films actors visited the Atlanta Cyclorama. Gable allegedly claimed that the only way the painting could be any more magnificent was if he were in it, prompting the management to add Gables features to one of the sculptures in the diorama, that of a dying soldier.</p><br>
<h2>Future plans</h2><br>
<p>In July 2014, Atlanta city officials announced plans to relocate the Cyclorama to the Atlanta History Center in Buckhead. The possibility of a move started soon after the 2008 restoration of the only other panoramic painting in the United States, the Gettysburg Cyclorama. In 2011, a panel of city leaders and historians was appointed to investigate options for restoring and possibly relocating the painting, which was estimated to cost at least $8 million to restore. Three options were considered: relocate to Centennial Olympic Park area, near the Georgia Aquarium and other new tourist attractions; relocate to Atlanta History Center; or, remain in current location. The Atlanta History Center was selected after a local couple offered $10 million towards the project, with the History Center noting in its announcement that it had already raised $32.2 million for the move.</p><br>
<p>The Cycloramas final day open to the public was June 30, 2015, after which it closed in preparation for the move. The History Center began construction in fall 2015 on a new 23,000 ft&sup2; building to house the painting, the diorama and the Texas locomotive. During the construction, restoration work will begin on the painting, including the addition of areas of the painting that were removed prior to its installation in the current Grant Park facility. After the History Center building is completed, the painting and diorama will be moved to the new facility where restoration will continue, at times in view of History Center visitors. The Grant Park building will be given to Zoo Atlanta, where it will be used as office and event space, including a new private viewing area for a proposed expansion of the zoos African elephant habitat.</p><br>
<p>Kaipara Harbour is a large enclosed harbour estuary complex on the north western side of the North Island of New Zealand. The northern part of the harbour is administered by the Kaipara District and the southern part is administered by the Auckland Council. The local Māori tribe is Ngāti Whātua.</p><br>
<p>By area, the Kaipara Harbour is one of the largest harbours in the world. It covers 947 km&sup2; at high tide, with 409 km&sup2; exposed as mudflats and sandflats at low tide.</p><br>
<p>According to Māori tradition, the name Kaipara had its origins back in the 15th century when the Arawa chief, Kahumatamomoe, travelled to the Kaipara to visit his nephew at Pouto. At a feast, he was so impressed with the cooked root of the para fern, that he gave the name Kai-para to the district. "Kai" means food in the Māori language.</p><br>
<p>__TOC__</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The harbour extends for some 60 km from north to south. Several large arms extend into the interior of the peninsula at the northeast of the harbour, one of them ending near the town of Maungaturoto, only ten kilometres (6 mi) from the Pacific Ocean coast. The harbour has extensive catchments feeding five rivers and over a hundred streams, and includes large estuaries formed by the Wairoa, Otamatea, Oruawharo, Tauhoa (Channel) and Kaipara. A number of small islands off the shoreline are connected to the mainland by mudflats at low tide.</p><br>
<p>The Kaipara Harbour is broad and mostly shallow, as it is formed from a system of drowned river valleys. The harbour shoreline is convoluted by the entry of many rivers and streams, and is about 800 km long, being the drainage catchment for about 640,000 ha of land.</p><br>
<p>The harbour entrance is a channel to the Tasman Sea. It narrows to a width of 6 km, and is over 50 m deep in parts. On average, Kaipara tides rise and fall 2.10 m. Spring tidal flows reach 9 km/h (5 knots) in the entrance channel and move 1,990 million cubic metres per tidal movement or 7,960 million cubic metres daily.</p><br>
<p>The harbour head is a hostile place. Big waves from the Tasman Sea break over large sandbanks about five metres below the surface, two to five kilometres from the shore. The sand in these sandbanks comes mainly from the Waikato River. Sand discharged from this river is transported northward by the prevailing coastal currents. Some of this sand is carried into the Kaipara harbour entrance, but mostly cycles out again and then continues moving northwards along the west coast. The southern sandbanks at the entrance are constantly accumulating and releasing this sand.</p><br>
<p>These treacherous sandbanks shift and change position, and are known locally as the graveyard. The graveyard is responsible for more shipwrecks than any other place in New Zealand, and has claimed at least 43 vessels&mdash;some say as many as 110. For this reason, a lighthouse was built in 1884 on the northern arm of the entrance (Pouto Peninsula). It was automated in 1947 and closed in the mid 1950s. The structure still exists and was renovated in 1982-84.</p><br>
<p>In Māori mythology, the ocean-going canoe Māhuhu voyaged from Hawaiki to New Zealand and overturned on the northern side of the entrance. It was commanded by the chief Rongomai, who drowned. His body was eaten by araara (white trevally), and his descendants to this day will not eat that type of fish. Today, the remains of wrecks still become visible under certain tidal and sand conditions. The Kaipara is rarely used today for shipping, and no large settlements lie close to its shores, although many small communities lie along its coastline.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>The Kaipara Harbour is a productive marine ecosystem, with diverse habitats and ecotones. There are tidal reaches, intertidal mudflats and sandflats, freshwater swamps, maritime rushes, reed beds and coastal scrublands. The area includes 125 square kilometres of mangrove forest. with subtidal fringes of seagrass.</p><br>
<p>The Kaipara is a migratory bird habitat of international significance. Forty–two coastal species are known, and up to 50,000 birds are common. Rare species use the harbour for feeding during summer before returning to the Northern Hemisphere to breed, such as the bar-tailed godwit, lesser knot, and turnstone. Threatened or endangered native species, such as the North Island fernbird, fairy tern, crake, Australasian bittern, banded rail, grey‑faced petrels, banded and NZ dotterels, South Island pied oystercatcher, pied stilt, and wrybill are also present. Significant local populations of black swan, pukeko, and grey duck also breed in the area.</p><br>
<p>Land habitats adjacent to the harbour support some rare botanical species, including native orchids, the king fern, and the endangered kaka beak.</p><br>
<p>In particular, Papakanui Spit on the south head of the harbour entrance, a mobile sandspit, is important as a breeding and roosting area for the New Zealand dotterel and the fairy tern. It also has areas of pingao. The spit was an important habitat for the Caspian tern. The birds have moved to other parts of Kaipara Harbour, possibly due to human disturbance. An air weapons range used by the New Zealand Defence Force is a short distance south of the spit. Regional Policy Statement,</p><br>
<p>Auckland Regional Council.</p><br>
<h2>Human use</h2><br>
<h3>Māori history</h3><br>
<p>Māori settlements and marae have been scattered around the harbour margins for hundreds of years. The waterways of the Kaipara provided, and still provide, Māori with resources and a ready means of moving between marae.</p><br>
<p>Today most marae are associated with the Ngāti Whātua sub-tribes, Te Taoū and Te Uri-o-Hau.</p><br>
<h3>European history</h3><br>
<p>In 1839, European settlers began arriving in the Kaipara to fell and mill kauri trees and build boats for local requirements. The first sailing ship wrecked at the entrance to the harbour was the Aurora in April 1840. The brigantine Sophia Pate was wrecked at South Head in August 1841 with the loss of all 21 on board.</p><br>
<p>The Wairoa is the main river feeding the Kaipara from the north. Thirty kilometres upstream, the town of Dargaville was established. The stretch of water to Dargaville is broad and straight and provides an easy to navigate route into what were then kauri forests in the interior. Dargaville flourished as kauri fell and mills buzzed. Immigrants from Britain and Croatia were attracted to the area. Ships up to 3,000 tons carried timber and logs out along the Wairoa to defy the bar at the harbour entrance before continuing on, usually to another New Zealand port or across the Tasman to Australia.</p><br>
<p>The Kaipara River is the principal river feeding Kaipara Harbour from the south. From 1863 Helensville established itself as a timber port on this river, and provided shipping services about the Kaipara. When the timber ran out, Helensville developed sheep and dairy farms, and more recently nut plantations, vineyards and deer farms.</p><br>
<p>Further south, Riverhead was an important trading link with the Kaipara and Helensville, and a centre for gum digging. Also set by a river, it milled timber and flour, and made paper. Later it turned to tobacco. From 1929 to 1933, the Riverhead State Forest was developed from 5,000 ha of exhausted gum land.</p><br>
<p>As the kauri ran out, the Kaipara became a backwater. After 1920 the gum and timber industries dwindled, and farming, mainly dairying, took over. In particular, there is dairying on the rich Ruāwai flats. These flats are below sea level, and are protected by a stopbank and a drainage system. Coastal sawmill settlements at Tinopai, Arapaoa, Batley, Matakohe, Oneriri, Ōruawharo, Pahi, Paparoa, Tanoa and Whakapirau (history photos on the Website) have become quiet backwaters. Pahi has become a launch point for houseboats and fishing. Matakohe has a museum which commemorates the kauri industry and the early Pākehā settlers.</p><br>
<p>Today, Dargaville is the principle centre in the Kaipara area. Its population levelled in the 1960s. It is the country’s main kūmara (sweet potato) producer.</p><br>
<h3>Fisheries</h3><br>
<p>Much of the coastal fishing industry in New Zealand depends on mangrove forests. About 80% of fish caught commercially are linked to food chains dependent on the mangroves, and at least 30 species of fish use mangrove wetlands at some stage of their life cycle.</p><br>
<p>The marine and estuarine areas in the Kaipara Harbour breed snapper, mullet, flounder, sole, kahawai, white trevally, gurnard, yellow‑eyed mullet and skates, rays and sharks. The Kaipara is the largest estuarine harbour on the west coast of New Zealand and provides significant areas of suitable breeding grounds and habitats for juvenile fish. It has fewer problems with water quality than the Manukau, and is the single most significant wetland for west coast fisheries.</p><br>
<p>In 2009, NIWA scientists discovered that 98 percent of snapper on the west coast of the North Island were originally juveniles from nurseries in the Kaipara. Snapper is New Zealand’s largest recreational fishery, and is also a commercial fishery with an annual export value of $32 million. The findings show how fragile some fish stocks can be, and highlights the importance of protecting natural habitats, like the Kaipara.</p><br>
<p>Native rock oysters are plentiful on the rocky shores, and the introduced Pacific oysters flourish lower in the intertidal zone. There are cockles and tuatua on the lower tidal flats, mussels from low tide on the rocks to subtidal beds closer to the mouth of the harbour, and scallops in the tidal channels.</p><br>
<p>The scallop population has periodic incidences of high mortality, the causes of which have not been identified. Concerns in recent years about the size and availability of scallops have resulted in temporary closures of the scallop fisheries.</p><br>
<p>Early versions of oyster farming occurred between the early 1900s and 1950s. Thousands of tons of rocks were placed along the shorelines to act as an additional substrate on which the natural rock oyster could grow. In 2008, resource consent was given to Biomarine to establish New Zealand’s largest oyster farm in the Kaipara. The farm is projected to produce about NZ$30 million in annual exports and 100 new jobs.</p><br>
<p>In recent years, there has been a perception amongst locals that commercial fishers have damaged fisheries in the Kaipara. Locals have been frustrated in their attempts to gain government support. The veteran filmmaker Barry Barclay has examined this in his 2005 documentary, The Kaipara affair.</p><br>
<h3>Sand mining</h3><br>
<p>Currently (2007) about 219,000 cubic metres of sand is mined each year from the entrance and tidal deltas of the Kaipara. This sand contributes over half the sand requirements for Auckland. The sand is used in the production of concrete and asphalt, and also in drainage systems and beach nourishment. A suction pump is usually used to extract the sand from the seabed. It is pumped into a barge as a sand and water slurry. As the barge loads, shells and other objects are screened out and the sea water drained back to the sea. The availability of sea sand within the Auckland region means the road costs of transporting sand from further parts of the country are avoided. Concerns about possible negative consequences of this sand mining have also been raised.</p><br>
<h3>Tidal power</h3><br>
<p>In 2008, Crest Energy, a power company, received resource consent to install about 200 underwater tidal turbines in the Kaipara Harbour, which would use the substantial tidal flows moving in and out every day near the harbour mouth to produce electricity for approximately 250,000 homes.</p><br>
<p>Crest plans to place the turbines at least 30 metres deep along a ten kilometre stretch of the main channel. Historical charts show this stretch of the channel has changed little over 150 years. The output of the turbines will cycle twice daily with the predictable rise and fall of the tide. Each turbine will have a maximum output of 1.2 MW, and is expected to generate 0.75 MW averaged over time.</p><br>
<p>The peak level of generation for the combined turbines is about 200 MW. This exceeds the projected peak electricity needs of Northland. It would have environmental benefits in offsetting annual carbon emissions from a thermal-based, gas turbine generator of 575,000 tonnes of carbon.</p><br>
<p>However, while the Department of Conservation has approved the project, and has made substantial environmental monitoring conditions part of the consent, the project also has objectors on the grounds of claimed influences on the local ecosystems and charter fishing (see the section above on fisheries). Appeals before the Environment Court are still likely.</p><br>
<h2>Management issues</h2><br>
<p>Management of the Kaipara Harbour does not have a central administration. Management is distributed among the Kaipara District Council, Auckland Council, Northland Regional Council, the Department of Conservation&#39;s Northland and Auckland section, and the Ministry of Fisheries.</p><br>
<p>The Ministry of Fishing allocates quota for the north west region of New Zealand as a whole, but does not tailor quota specifically for the Kaipara. Local iwi feel they are not sufficiently involved in management issues, and to further compound matters, the local iwi is split between Te Uri-o-Hau in the northern part and Te Taoū in the southern part.</p><br>
<p>Ecological management and environmental issues are discussed in the Ecology section.</p><br>
<h2>Environmental issues</h2><br>
<p>As of 2011, the environmental state of the harbour has been called as "nearing crisis" and "in significant decline", with shrinking fish and shellfish stocks, more sedimentation, declining water quality and competition for resource use and development being noted as the main issues, with "ninety-nine per cent of the rivers in the catchment polluted".</p><br>
<p>As part of the worldwide trend, there is a decline in biodiversity within the Kaipara. The timber industry removed most of the native forest. Much of the kauri and kahikatea forest, and scrub and riparian vegetation, has been replaced with farm and urban areas. Mangrove forests and wetlands have been "reclaimed". Soil erosion has increased on the land and sedimentation in the harbour. Shellfish abundance has declined, especially toheroa, scallops, tuatua, cockles and pipi. Finfish like mullet, snapper, kanae and school shark have diminished.</p><br>
<p>Habitat fragmentation has also occurred. Natural vegetation in the Kaipara catchments have been reduced to islands of wetlands and forest in man-made landscapes&mdash;separated by urban areas, roads, exotic forests and pastures. More information is needed on biodiversity in the Kaipara Harbour and habitats in associated coastal areas. A recent pilot survey found that habitats in the estuaries are still extensive, but ninety percent of land cover is no longer indigenous wetland or vegetation. Even if the key existing areas were to be protected, further buffers and corridors that give better connection between the natural areas would be needed to encourage the recovery of biodiversity.</p><br>
<h2>Timeline</h2><br>
<p>c. 1300: The Maori chief Rongomai arrives in his canoe Māhuhu from Hawaiki, and is drowned at the harbour entrance.</p><br>
<p>1807 or 1808: Ngapuhi fight Ngāti Whātua, Te-Uri-o-Hau and Te Roroa iwi at the battle of Moremonui on the west coast of Northland, the first battle in which Maori used muskets.</p><br>
<p>1839: European settlers begin arriving to fell and mill kauri trees.</p><br>
<p>1840: The Aurora, a 550-ton barque, is the first European ship to be wrecked at the entrance.</p><br>
<p>1860s: The timber industry is established.</p><br>
<p>1899: The timber industry peaks.</p><br>
<p>c. 1939: Timber trade ends, and the area becomes a backwater.</p><br>
<p>2002: Crown settles historical claims of Te Uri o Hau</p><br>
<p>2005: Filmmaker Barry Barclay makes his documentary, The Kaipara Affair.</p><br>
<p>2008: Biomarine receives resource consent to establish an oyster farm</p><br>
<p>2008: Crest Energy receives resource consent to install tidal turbines</p><br>
<p>The South Carolina State Museum is a state-of-the-art facility featuring four floors of permanent and changing exhibits, a digital dome planetarium, 4D interactive theater and an observatory. The State Museum, the largest and most comprehensive museum in the state, is located along the banks of the Congaree River in downtown Columbia, South Carolina. Positioned on an old shipping canal that dates back to pre-Civil War times, the museum is widely recognized as a resource for South Carolina history and lifestyle. The museum opened on October 29th, 1988 and is housed in what it calls its largest artifact, the former Columbia Mills Building, listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982. When the mill opened in 1894, manufacturing cotton duck cloth , it was the first totally electric textile mill in the world. It was also the first major industrial installation for the General Electric corporation. On certain levels of the museum, the original flooring has been kept intact, distinguishable by hundreds of textile brads and rings  that became embedded in the floor while it was still being used as a mill.</p><br>
<p>The museum represents four disciplines: art, cultural history, science and technology, and natural history. Exhibits include life-size replicas of the Best Friend of Charleston, the first American-built locomotive, and the H.L. Hunley, the first submarine to sink an enemy ship in combat. The second floor is notable for its recreation of a Megalodon, named Finn, suspended mid-air just around a corner, which has scared countless groups of young children.</p><br>
<p>The museum has an "Official" Story Chair (named Sammy) designed and donated by Storyteller Mike Miller (greatstoryteller.com) for the benefit of children and storytellers.</p><br>
<p>The State Museum is undergoing a multi-dimensional expansion project, Windows to New Worlds which will position South Carolina on the cutting edge of education, particularly in the critical areas of science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM).</p><br>
<p>Windows to New Worlds, slated to open in 2014, has several innovative elements, including enhanced guest services, an on-site and online observatory and classroom with a distance learning studio, a 55-foot digital planetarium dome and theater, a 4D multisensory theatre, an historical telescope gallery and an outdoor telescope viewing terrace.</p><br>
<p>In the capital city where three interstates converge, no one in the state will be more than 3.5 hours away. Some 75,000 additional visitors are anticipated in the first year alone and earned revenue is expected to double to $3,000,000 per year.</p><br>
<p>Central Square is an area in Cambridge, Massachusetts centered on the junction of Massachusetts Avenue, Prospect Street and Western Avenue., formed by the junction of Massachusetts Avenue, Columbia Street, Sidney Street and Main Street, is also considered a part of the Central Square area. Harvard Square is to the northwest along Massachusetts Avenue, Inman Square is to the north along Prospect Street and Kendall Square is to the east along Main Street. The section of Central Square along Massachusetts Avenue between Clinton Street and Main Street is designated the Central Square Historic District, and was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1990.</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<p>Central Square was designated an official Cultural District in the state of Massachusetts by the Mass Cultural Council in October 2012. Central Square is known for its wide variety of ethnic restaurants, churches, bars, and live music and theatre venues. It is gentrifying rapidly, and a number of upscale restaurants have opened in the Square. Many startups, including pharmaceutical, videogame and Internet companies, have moved research and office operations into the Square to take advantage of the proximity to MIT, Boston medical resources and relatively low costs. Some critics have claimed that the recent changes have diminished the Squares edge, as some of the older Square businesses such as Manray have closed. There is also a diverse array of houses of worship in the area, with Christ the King Presbyterian Church, First Baptist Church, Sts. Constantine & Helen Greek Orthodox Church, St. Pauls African Methodist Episcopal Church and other large historic congregations meeting near the Square.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Central Square&#39;s history has been marked by several waves of immigration. The original population of the Square included people of English and Canadian ancestry. Between 1850 and 1890, the Square attracted many Irish immigrants, and in the late Nineteenth Century also became home to many others from throughout Europe. Later waves of immigration included people from the West Indies, South America and Africa.</p><br>
<p>Central Square is also the original home of actor Ben Affleck and, from 1927 to 2003, the Necco factory. The old Necco factory building in Cambridge is now used for labs by Novartis.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and transportation</h2><br>
<p>Several Cambridge neighborhoods meet at Central Square. To the east, Area 4 lies on the north side of Massachusetts Avenue (aka "Mass Ave.") and Cambridgeport on the south side between Massachusetts Avenue and the Charles River. Both of these neighborhoods were once known as The Port or Old Port region of Cambridge. The area to the west and northwest of Central Square is known as Mid-Cambridge.</p><br>
<p>Central Square is accessible from Central station on the MBTA Red Line, as well as Buses 1, 64, 70, 83, and 91.</p><br>
<p>The intersection of Massachusetts Avenue and Brookline in front of The Middle East in Central Square is named in honor of the late indie rock musician Mark Sandman, who often played there.</p><br>
<p>Central Square serves as the commercial center for the surrounding neighborhoods of Cambridgeport, Riverside, Mid Cambridge, Area 4 and MIT.</p><br>
<h2>Local government services</h2><br>
<p>Central Square is the seat of government in Cambridge. Cambridge City Hall, and the main branch of the Cambridge Post Office are located in this area. The Cambridge Police Department headquarters was formerly at 5 Western Avenue in the Central Square area; however, between November 2008 and March 2009 it completed a relocation to a new facility at 125 Sixth Street, near Kendall Square.</p><br>
<h2>Notable Central Square residents</h2><br>
<p>Ben Affleck, actor</p><br>
<p>Casey Affleck, actor</p><br>
<p>Matt Damon, actor</p><br>
<p>Ken Brown, filmmaker</p><br>
<p>Lisa Crafts, animator</p><br>
<p>Patrick Ewing, athlete</p><br>
<p>Vernon Grant, cartoonist</p><br>
<p>John Forbes Nash, mathematician</p><br>
<h2>Notable Central Square businesses</h2><br>
<p>Central Square Theater</p><br>
<p>GamerDNA</p><br>
<p>ImprovBoston</p><br>
<p>The Middle East (nightclub)</p><br>
<p>Toscanini&#39;s</p><br>
<p>T.T. the Bear&#39;s (1973-2015)</p><br>
<h2>Fiction about Central Square</h2><br>
<p>Central Square (1998), by George Packer. Graywolf Press</p><br>
<p>Black Mountain is the highest mountain peak in the Commonwealth of Kentucky, USA, with a summit elevation of 4,145 ft above mean sea level and a top-to-bottom height of over 2,500 ft. The summit is located at approximately {{coord|36|54|51|N|82|53|38|W|type:mountain_region:US}} in Harlan County, Kentucky near the Virginia border, just above the towns of Lynch, Kentucky and Appalachia, Virginia. It is about 500 ft taller than any other mountain in Kentucky.</p><br>
<p>Route 160 east of Lynch, Kentucky and west of Appalachia, Virginia crosses the mountain. The summit is reached by a narrow road that turns off to the right (coming from Lynch, KY or to the left, if coming from Appalachia, VA) at the Kentucky-Virginia line (the gap that is the highest part of Route 160) and leads past an FAA radar dome. There is a one lane dirt road to the left not far past the radar dome that leads to the summit. The summit is marked with an abandoned metal fire lookout tower (the cab and wooden steps are missing from the tower). There are also multiple radio towers along with transmitter buildings around the summit and a National Geodetic Survey benchmark is located on a large rock over the hill to the left of the fire tower. This benchmark is 6 feet below the highest point; a second is directly under the old lookout tower, marking the latest survey of the highest natural point.</p><br>
<p>The FAA Radar dome is nearby, but below the summit. Trees on both sides of the radar dome have been cleared, so views of other mountains are visible. On a clear day the Great Smoky Mountains on the Tennessee and North Carolina border are clearly visible.</p><br>
<p>Black Mountain&#39;s history is intimately tied to the coal mining of the surrounding region. Lynch, Kentucky, was once one of the largest coal mining towns in the nation. In 1998, Jericol Mining, Inc., petitioned to use mountaintop removal methods in the area of Black Mountain. Though the summit itself was not directly threatened, many people protested this action due to the peak&#39;s status as the state&#39;s highest point. In 1999, Kentucky purchased mineral and timber rights to the summit and prevented future large scale mining. Coal companies have alleged that mined coal veins converge beneath the summit of Black Mountain and that the summit is prone to collapse.</p><br>
<p>A coal company named Penn Virginia Resources of Radnor, Pennsylvania owns the summit, but allows public access with the completion of a waiver.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>Black Mountain is one of the few sites in Kentucky supporting a Northern Hardwood Forest at higher elevations. Numerous rare plants and animals are found here, including Black Bear, Red Elderberry and Hobblebush. Like many areas of Northern Hardwood Forest in the Southern Appalachia, fires swept through the mountain after intense logging. Black Mountain has a documented fire that occurred in the fall of 1896.</p><br>
<p>Woodall Mountain is the highest natural point in the state of Mississippi at 807 feet . It is located just off Mississippi Highway 25, south of Iuka in Tishomingo County in the northeast part of the state.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Located in the northeast part of the state, Woodall Mountain is the highest natural point in the state of Mississippi at 807 feet (246 m). It was originally called Yow Hill. The summit is marked with a National Geodetic Survey triangulation station disk and three radio towers. A sign cautions visitors to prepare for a steep, unpaved, and rocky inclined road approximately a mile in length to the summit.</p><br>
<p>Atop the hill there is a bench, a high point register, and a gravel circle allowing parking for several vehicles. A wooden observation tower was constructed in the 20th century atop the hill in the middle of the gravel circle. The tower deteriorated over time, with some steps rotting; it was torn down in 1998.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Yow Hill was the scene of fighting during the American Civil War. On September 19, 1862, the Battle of Iuka took place there. Union General William Rosecrans occupied the mountain and used it to launch artillery barrages on the town of Iuka, then under the control of General Sterling Price. The battle was a victory for the Union, and Price slipped away to strike another day.</p><br>
<p>The hill was renamed after Zephaniah Woodall, sheriff of Tishomingo County, who bought it and surrounding land in 1884. Describing this hill as Woodall Mountain is often lampooned by locals. Some nearby stores sell souvenir T-shirts with the phrase "Ski Woodall". But, the mountain rises prominently above the surrounding terrain, is visible for several miles, and provides a good view of the surrounding countryside.</p><br>
<h2>Representation in popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The Tupelo-based bluegrass band The Woodall Mountain Boys took their name from the mountain.</p><br>
<p>Mount Rogers is the highest natural point in the Commonwealth of Virginia, United States, with a summit elevation of 5,729 ft above mean sea level. The summit straddles the border of Grayson and Smyth Counties, Virginia, about 6.45 mi WSW of Troutdale, Virginia. Most of the mountain is contained within the Lewis Fork Wilderness, while the entire area is part of the Mount Rogers National Recreation Area, which itself is a part of the Jefferson National Forest.</p><br>
<p>The mountain is named for William Barton Rogers, a Virginian educated at the College of William & Mary, who taught at William & Mary and the University of Virginia, became Virginia&#39;s first State Geologist, and went on to found the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.</p><br>
<p>The summit is most easily accessed from Grayson Highlands State Park by following the Appalachian Trail southbound for 3.5 mi to a blue-blazed trail leading to the summit, which is covered by trees and marked with four National Geodetic Survey triangulation station disks; a standard station disk marked with an equilateral triangle and three standard reference disks marked with arrows pointing towards the station disk. One reference disk has been obscured by dense overgrowth. Because the Appalachian Trail passes within a half mile of the summit, the area is especially popular with hikers.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Mount Rogers area contains a unique record of the geohistory of Virginia. There is evidence from the rocks that volcanoes were part of the landscape. Roughly 750 million years ago, rift-related (divergent) volcanoes erupted along the axis of what later became the Appalachians, and one remnant of that volcanic zone, with its volcanic rocks, still can be seen at Mount Rogers. Massive rhyolite lava flows erupted at the mountain during the Precambrian rifting event. Mount Rogers is also the only place in Virginia that preserves evidence of ancient Proterozoic glaciation.</p><br>
<h2>Spruce-fir forests</h2><br>
<p>These forests have suffered recent declines due to infestations by the balsam woolly adelgid (Adelges piceae), a non-native insect that originated in Europe. It first infested Mount Rogers in 1962 and the entire USA population of Fraser firs suffered a 67% mortality rate since, although Mount Rogers was not affected as severely as other locations.</p><br>
<p>Some researchers have proposed that air pollution in the form of nitrogen and sulfur compounds originating from power plants has been a source of stress to the Fraser firs, resulting in an increased susceptibility to the balsam woolly adelgid, but this relationship has not been confirmed.</p><br>
<p>Sassafras Mountain is the highest point in the state of South Carolina, United States. It is in the Blue Ridge Mountains, part of the Appalachian Mountains.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>It is located along the South Carolina - North Carolina border in northern Pickens County, South Carolina nearest to the town of Rosman, North Carolina. From I-85 Exit 21 in South Carolina, one can reach Sassafras Mountain by driving north on US-178 until reaching the unincorporated community of Rocky Bottom. From there, take F. Van Clayton Highway (a local road) about 4.7 mi to the parking lot at the top. From Rosman, follow US-178 south. The summit is an easy 300 foot walk from the parking lot and is, by merit of not having stairs, handicapped accessible, although the path is fairly steep.</p><br>
<p>The North Carolina side of the mountain was owned by former Congressman Charles H. Taylor. In June 2010 he sold 8,000 acre to The Conservation Fund. The Fund has donated 4.8 acre, at the top of the mountain, to the South Carolina Department of Natural Resources and intends to convey the rest of the 8,000 acre to the North Carolina Forest Service.</p><br>
<p>The Pisgah Quadrangle topographical map, revised 1904-1905, shows the long abandoned Sassafras Gap Road to be the preferred route through to Rosman, N.C. and Brevard, N.C. at the end of the 19th Century and that the existing Highway 178 was then a secondary road. This abandoned road is a short distance from the summit and is crossed by the hiking trail to Caesars Head from Sassafras summit. Most people crossing this old roadbed in Sassafras Gap dont recognize it as a road, but it is easily recognized because of the short section of steps going down into the roadbed, and a similar section of short steps on the opposite side of the roadbed going up and the trail then continuing steeply up toward Caesars Head. A short hike South down the old Sassafras Gap Road will take you to Hickory Head Spring, the headwater of the South Saluda River. Hickory Head Spring is shown as a feature on the Mills Atlas, 1825, Greenville District, South Carolina.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The granite that originally formed Sassafras Mountain has metamorphosed into Henderson Gneiss, which is quartz, muscovite, and feldspar.</p><br>
<p>The Kennedy School, originally the John D. Kennedy Elementary School, is a former elementary school that has been converted to a hotel, movie theater and dining establishment in northeast Portland, Oregon. The facility is operated by the McMenamins chain. The hotel has 35 guestrooms, a brewery, four bars, and a restaurant.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The school was built in 1915. The land for the school was sold by John Daniel Kennedy to the Portland School District in 1913. Ladies Home Journal praised the innovative, single-story architecture of the school.</p><br>
<h2>Currently</h2><br>
<p>By the 1990s, the school had been abandoned. McMenamins, the Portland-based hotel and pub group, bought the old building and funded a full renovation. Today, the Kennedy School functions as an event space with 57 classroom-turned-guestrooms with original chalkboards included. The old cafeteria has been converted into a courtyard restaurant, and the common areas now include a bar, gift shop, movie theater, brewery, and soaking tub.</p><br>
<p>San Lazzaro degli Armeni  is a small island in the Venetian Lagoon which has been home to the monastery of the Mekhitarists, an Armenian Catholic congregation, since 1717.</p><br>
<p>The islet lies 2 km to the southeast of Venice proper and west of the Lido. The islet covers an area of 3 hectare. Settled in the 9th century, it was a leper colony during the Middle Ages, but fell into disuse by the early 18th century. In 1717 San Lazzaro was ceded by the Republic of Venice to Mkhitar Sebastatsi, an Armenian Catholic monk, and his followers who established a monastery. It has since been the headquarters of the Mekhitarists and, as such, one of the world&#39;s prominent centers of Armenian culture and Armenian studies. Numerous important publications were made in the island by the monks which made it an early major center of Armenian printing.</p><br>
<p>San Lazzaro has been enlarged nearly four times from its original size through land reclamation. It was recognized as an academy by Napoleon in 1810 when nearly all monasteries of Venice were abolished. A significant episode in its history is Lord Byron&#39;s visit in 1816–17. The island is one of the best known historic sites of the Armenian diaspora. The monastery has a large collection of books, journals, artifacts, and the third largest collection of Armenian manuscripts (more than 3,000). Over the centuries, dozens of artists, writers, political and religious leaders have visited the island. It has since become a tourist destination.</p><br>
<h2>Overview</h2><br>
<p>San Lazzaro lies 2 km to the southeast of Venice proper and west of the Lido. The islet is rectangular-shaped and covers an area of 3 hectare. Some 40,000 people visit the island annually, with Italians making up the majority of visitors.</p><br>
<p>The island&#39;s official Italian name, San Lazzaro degli Armeni, literally translates to "Saint Lazarus of the Armenians". It is often referred to in English as Saint Lazarus Island. In Armenian, the island is called Սուրբ Ղազար, Surb Ghazar.</p><br>
<p>The number of monks, students, and other residents at San Lazzaro has fluctuated throughout history. In 1816, when Byron visited the island, there were some 70 Mekhitarists in San Lazzaro. The number of residents has decreased significantly since. By the early 1840s the island housed 50 monks and students, and some 20 monks in 1960. A Los Angeles Times writer noted in 1998 that San Lazzaro is still a "monastic hub of activity," although at the time the monastery housed only 10 seminarians and 10 fathers. Teresa Levonian Cole wrote in The Independent that, as of 2015, 12 vardapets (educated monks) and five novices reside in San Lazzaro.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Middle Ages</h3><br>
<p>The recorded history of the island begins in the 9th century. In 810, the Republic of Venice allocated the island to the abbot of the Benedictine Monastery of St. Ilario of Fusina. In the 12th century, leprosy appeared in Venice as a result of trade with the East. Leone Paolini, a local nobleman, transferred the simple hospital of San Trovaso to the island in 1182. Thus, a leper colony—hospital for people with leprosy—was established at the island, which was chosen for that purpose due to its relative distance from the principal islands forming the city of Venice. It received its name from St. Lazarus, the patron saint of lepers. The church of San Lazzaro was founded in 1348, which is attested by an inscription in Gothic script. In the same year, the hospital was renovated and its ownership transferred from the Benedictines to the patriarchal cathedral of San Pietro. Leprosy declined by the mid-1500s and the island was abandoned by 1601 when only the chaplain and some gardeners remained at the island to grow vegetables. In the second half of the 17th century the island was leased to various religious groups. In 1651 a Dominican order settled at the island after fleeing from Turkish-occupied Crete. Jesuits also briefly settled in the island. By the early 18th century only a few crumbling ruins remained in the isle.</p><br>
<h3>Armenian period</h3><br>
<p>In April 1715, a group of twelve Armenian Catholic monks led by Mkhitar Sebastatsi (English: Mekhitar of Sebaste, Italian: Mechitar) arrived in Venice from Morea, today known as the Peloponnese peninsula, following its invasion by the Ottoman Empire. The monks were members of a Catholic order founded by Mkhitar in 1701, in Constantinople, the capital of the Ottoman Empire. The order moved to Modone (Methoni), on the southern shore of the Peloponnese, in 1703, after repressions by the Ottoman government and the Armenian Apostolic Church. In 1712 the order received recognition by Pope Clement XI. Victor Langlois wrote that a Venetian admiral and the Venetian governor of Morea, "sympathizing deeply with the fearful distress of the unfortunate community, yielded to their earnest entreaties for permission to embark on a government vessels which was about to leave for Venice."</p><br>
<p>On September 8, 1717, on the Feast of the Nativity of Mary, the Venetian Senate ceded San Lazzaro to Mkhitar and his companions, who agreed not to rename the island. He was reminded of the monastery on the island of Lake Sevan, where he had sought education earlier in his life. Upon acquisition, the monks began works of restoration of existing buildings on the island. The entire community then relocated to the island on April 1718 when the buildings on San Lazzaro became habitable. Mkhitar himself designed the plan of the monastery, which was completed by 1840. The monastery originally included 16 cells for monks, which were adjusted from the old hospital. The church&#39;s restoration lasted from May to November 1722. Mkhitar died in 1749. The bell tower was completed a year later, in 1750.</p><br>
<p>The Venetian Republic was disestablished by Napoleon in 1797. In 1810, he abolished all monastic orders of Venice and the Kingdom of Italy, except that of the Mekhitarists in San Lazzaro. The Mekhitarist congregation was left in peace, according to some sources, due to the intercession of Roustam Raza, Napoleon&#39;s Mamluk bodyguard of Armenian origin. Napoleon signed a decree, dated August August 27, 1810, which declared that the congregation may continue to exist as an academy. Since then, San Lazzaro is also known as an academy and sometimes referred to in Latin as Academia Armena Sancti Lazari.</p><br>
<p>The monastery has been enlarged significantly through land reclamation four time since the 19th century. First, in 1815, the Mekhitarists were permitted by Austrian Emperor Francis I to expand the island. The area north of the island was filled which doubled its area from 7,900m² to 13,700 m². In 1836, a boundary wall around the islands newly reclaimed area was built. The channel of the boathouse was filled in 1912 and it was moved to the far western corner. The shoreline was straightened. These adjustments increased its area to 16,970 m². San Lazzaros latest major enlargement occurred in post-World War II period. Between 1947 and 1949, the island was expanded on the southeast and the southwest. The island now has an area of 30,000 m² or 3 hectares.</p><br>
<p>A fire broke out on the night of December 8, 1975, which partially destroyed the library and damaged the southern side of the church, and destroyed two Gaspare Diziani paintings.</p><br>
<p>Between 2002 and 2004, an extensive restoration of the monasterys structures was carried out by the Magistrato alle acque under the coordination of Consorzio Venezia Nuova, an agency of the Italian Ministry of Infrastructure and Transport. It included restoration of the islands shores and its walls and the boathouse.</p><br>
<p>In 2015, San Lazzaro hosted the pavilion of Armenia during the 56th Venice Biennale. The exhibition, dedicated to the 100th anniversary of the Armenian Genocide and curated by Adelina Cüberyan von Furstenberg, won the Golden Lion award in the national participation category.</p><br>
<h2>Monastery</h2><br>
<p>San Lazzaro is entirely occupied by the Mekhitarist monastery of San Lazzaro, which is the headquarters of the Armenian Catholic Mekhitarist Congregation. The monastery is known in Armenian as Մխիթարեան Մայրավանք, M(ə)khitarian Mayravank&#39;, which literally translates to the "Mekhitarist Mother Monastery" and in Italian as Monastero Mechitarista. The monastery currently contains a church with a bell tower, residential quarters, library, museums, picture gallery, manuscript repository, printing plant, sundry teaching and research facilities, gardens, a bronze statue of Mkhitar erected by Antonio Baggio in 1962, an Armenian Genocide memorial erected in the 1960s, and a 14th-century basalt khachkar (cross stone) donated by the Soviet Armenian government in 1987.</p><br>
<p>The cloister of the monastery consists of a colonnade of 42 columns in the Doric order. There is a 15th-century water well in the center of the cloister, which is surrounded by trees and shrubs. Archaeological findings such as a Phoenician and early Christian inscriptions, a first century headless statue of a Roman noble from Aquileia and other artifacts.</p><br>
<p>The bell tower with an onion dome was completed in 1750. It is not attached to the church and stands alone near the northern side of the church.</p><br>
<h3>The church</h3><br>
<p>The church of San Lazzaro, although renovated several times through centuries, retains the 14th century pointed arch style. The church was restored extensively by Mkhitar in 1722, five years after the settlement of Armenian monks. He completely rebuilt the altar. Its apse was extended in 1899 primarily with an addition of neo-Gothic elements. The church has a neo-Gothic interior. It is three-naved, supported by 6 red marble columns. The main altar is in Baroque style. The three main windows of the altar&#39;s apse have stained glass which depict from left to right: Sahak Patriarch, Saint Lazarus, and Mesrop Mashtots. In the church, there are frescoes and paintings by Antonio Ermolao Paoletti depicting Saint Peter, Saint Paul, John the Baptist and Saint Stephen. The tomb of Mkhitar is located in the front of the altar.</p><br>
<p>Besides the main altar, there are four other altars dedicated to the Holy Cross, St. Gregory the Illuminator, Mary, and Anthony the Great. All built in the period of 1735–38 by Mkhitar. They are all adorned by pieces of works, mainly by Venetian artists. The St. Gregory altarpiece by Noè Bordignon depicts the saint performing the baptism of the Armenian king Tiridates III. The altarpiece dedicated to the mother of Jesus depicts the Nativity of Mary by Domenico Maggiotto. The altarpiece of St. Anthony by Francesco Zugno depicts the founder of the Oriental monasticism, who inspired Mkhitar.</p><br>
<p>Within the church, there are paintings of Armenian saints by Paoletti created in 1901: Ghevond, Hripsime, Nerses of Lambron, Nerses the Great, Sandukht, Vardan, Gregory of Narek, Nerses Shnorhali. Other significant paintings include Madonna with Child by Palma il Giovane (Jacopo Negretti), the baptism of king Tiridates III by St. Gregory the Illuminator by Hovhannes Patkerahan (1720), Assumption of Mary by Jacopo Bassano, Annunciation and Mother of Mercy by Matteo Cesa, the Flood by Leandro Bassano, Flight into Egypt by Marco Basaiti, Annunciation by Bernardo Strozzi, St. Thecla and Sts. Peter and Paul by Girolamo da Santacroce, Moses Saved from the Waters and Archangel Raphael by Luca Carlevarijs.</p><br>
<h3>Collections</h3><br>
<h4>Library</h4><br>
<p>The library contains 150,000 to 200,000 printed books in Armenian, as well as European and Oriental languages. A significant part of the library comprises an ancient collection. The collection includes books on the arts, the sciences, history, natural history, diverse classical texts, literary criticism, major encyclopedias.</p><br>
<p>The floor of the library is decorated in a Venetian style. Its ceiling, partially destroyed in the 1975 fire, was painted by Francesco Zugno and depicts Catherine of Alexandria, the four fathers of the Latin Church (Ambrose, Augustine, Jerome, St. Gregory the Great), and fathers of the Armenian Church. A chalk sculpture of Napoleon II by Antonio Canova is preserved in a glass cabinet in the library. A sculpture of Pope Gregory XVI by Giuseppe De Fabris, presented to the Mekhitarists by the Pope, is also kept at the room.</p><br>
<h4>Manuscripts</h4><br>
<p>The Mekhitarists regard the collection of manuscripts the greatest treasure of San Lazzaro. During the 19th century, Mekhitarist monks extracted from these manuscripts and published some previously unpublished pieces of Armenian and non-Armenian literature. According to the magazine of the Church of England, by 1870, San Lazzaro had the second largest collection of Armenian manuscripts after Etchmiadzin having some 1,200 manuscripts in possession. The exact current number of manuscripts preserved at San Lazzaro is unknown. According to Bernard Coulie the number is around 3,000, which comprises some 10% of all extant Armenian manuscripts. According to the Mekhitarist Congregation website the monastery contains 4,500 Armenian manuscripts. Armenian Weekly writer Levon Saryan noted that the manuscript collection of San Lazzaro consists of over 3,000 complete volumes and about 2,000 fragments. San Lazzaro is usually ranked as the third largest collection of Armenian manuscripts in the world after Matenadaran in Yerevan, Armenia and the Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem. The manuscript collection is kept in the rotunda-shaped tower, called the Manuscript Room (manuscript repository). Its construction was funded by Cairo-based Armenian antiques dealer Boghos Ispenian and was designed by his son Andon Ispenian. It was inaugurated in 1970 in attendance of Catholicos Vasken I.</p><br>
<p>The earliest manuscripts preserved at the repository date to the eighth century. Among its notable manuscripts are the 9th century Gospel of Queen Mlke (Մլքե թագուհու Ավետարան), the early 11th century Adrianopolis Gospel; the Life of Alexander the Great, an Armenian translation of a 5th-century Greek version by Pseudo-Callistene; the Gospels of Gladzor (dated 1307). In 1976–79 some 300 manuscripts were donated by Harutiun Kurdian, for which new display cases were added. It holds one of the ten extant copies of Urbatagirk, the first-ever Armenian book printed by Hakob Meghapart in Venice in 1512. Furthermore, 44 Armenian prayer scrolls (hmayil) are preserved at the repository.</p><br>
<h4>Armenian museum</h4><br>
<p>The Armenian museum was designed by Venetian architect Giovanni Rossi and completed in 1867. Seriously damaged by a 1975 fire, it was restored in its present from by Manouk Manoukian. It formerly served as the library of Armenian manuscripts and publications. The museum now houses items related to Armenian history and art, inducing helmets and bronze belts from the Urartian period; the sword of Leo V, the last Armenian King of Cilicia, forged in Sis in 1366; Armenian ceramics from Kütahya; coins, stamps and a passport issued by the 1918–20 First Republic of Armenia. Numerous Armenian religious objects of art from the 16th to 18th centuries are on display. A bas-relief in agate from the medieval Armenian capital of Ani and a curtain formerly hang at the monastery of Lim Island on Lake Van are also on display, along with several paintings by Russian-Armenian marine artist Ivan Aivazovsky, including depictions of Mount Ararat and Niagara Falls. His Biblical creation-themed painting Chaos (1841) was donated to the congregation by Pope Leo XIII in 1901. The death mask of Komitas, the musicologist who established the Armenian national school of music, is also on display in the museum.</p><br>
<h4>Oriental museum</h4><br>
<p>Oriental and Egyptian publications and artifacts are held in what is called the "Lord Byron Room", because it is where he studied Armenian language and culture during his visit to San Lazzaro. It was originally the manuscript room. Its most notable item is the Egyptian mummy, attributed to Namenkhet Amun, a priest at the Amon Temple in Karnak. It was sent to San Lazzaro in 1825 by Boghos Bey Yusufian, an Egyptian minister of Armenian origin. Radiocarbon dating revealed that it dates to 450–430 BC (late Period of ancient Egypt). The collection also includes Etruscan vases, Chinese antiques, a princely Indian throne with ivory inlay work, and a rare papyrus in 12 segments in Pali of a Buddhist ritual, with bustrophedic writing in red lacquer on gold leaf brought from Madras by a Russian-Armenian archaeologist, who discovered it in a temple in 1830.</p><br>
<h4>Paintings</h4><br>
<p>Among the art works on display at the monastery corridors are charcoal drawings by Edgar Chahine, landscapes by Martiros Saryan, Manuk Abeghian, Mount Ararat by Gevorg Bashinjaghian, a marine painting by Charles Garabed Atamian and a collage by Sergei Parajanov, a triptych by Francesco Zugno depicting the baptism of King Tiridates III by Gregory the Illuminator, various paintings by Luigi Querena, Binding of Isaac by Francesco Hayez, and others.</p><br>
<h3>Publishing house</h3><br>
<p>A publishing house was established at the island in 1789. It was closed down in 1991, however, the Mekhitarists of San Lazzaro continue publication through their publishing house, Casa Editrice Armena. Until the early 20th century, a number of important publications were made on the island. Khachig Tölölyan wrote of the role the Mekhitarists and their publications:</p><br>
<p>The publications of the Mekhitarists, both in San Lazzaro and Vienna, contributed greatly to the refinement of literary Western Armenian. The San Lazzaro branch became particularly noted in the fields of history, the arts, and literature influence by the Italian penchant for the arts. The publishing house printed books in dozens of languages, which included themes such as theology, history, linguistics, literature, natural sciences, and economics. They also published textbooks and translations from European languages and editions of classics. Among its publications, the most significant work is the two-volume dictionary of Classical Armenian: Նոր Բառգիրք Հայկազեան Լեզուի, Nor baṛgirkʻ haykazean lezui (New Dictionary of the Armenian Language, 1836–37), which is considered a monumental achievement and remains unsurpassed. Beginning in 1800 a periodical journal has been published at the island. Bazmavep, a literary, historical and scientific journal, was established in 1843 and continues to be published to this day.</p><br>
<h3>Gardens</h3><br>
<p>The gardens of the monastery have been admired by many visitors. "The island... with its flower and fruit gardens, is so well kept that an excursion to San Lazzaro is a favourite one with all visitors to Venice," noted one visitor in 1905. Irish botanist Edith Blake wrote: "The garden in the centre of the cloisters was gay with flowers, and there was a calm, peaceful air of repose over the whole place."</p><br>
<p>The monks at San Lazzaro make jam from the roses grown in the gardens. The jam, called Vartanush, is made from rose petal around May, when the roses are in full bloom. Besides rose petal, it contains white caster sugar, water, and lemon juice. Around five thousand jars of jam are made and sold in the gift shop in the island. Monks also eat it for breakfast.</p><br>
<h2>Role in Armenian history</h2><br>
<p>San Lazzaro has a great historical significance to Armenians and has been described as a "little Armenia." The New York Times wrote in 1919: "The island of San Lazzaro, near Venice, has been for over two centuries an Armenian oasis transplanted in the Venetian lagoons." It is one of the richest Armenian enclaves, and, according to sociologist Anny Bakalian, one of the best-known Armenian sites in the world, along with the Armenian Quarter of Jerusalem&#39;s Old City. William Dean Howells noted in 1866 that "As a seat of learning, San Lazzaro is famed throughout the Armenian world." The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church calls the convent of San Lazzaro and the order of the Mechitarists "especially remarkable" of the religious orders based in Venice. American missionary Eli Smith noted in 1833 that the convent of San Lazzaro not only did not pursue the "denationalizing system of many of the Romish missions among the oriental churches," but also has done "more than all other Armenians together, to cultivate and enrich the literature of the nation." Travel writer Louisa Stuart Costello called the Armenian convent of San Lazzaro "a respectable pile, above the encircling waters, an enduring monument of successful perseverance in a good cause."</p><br>
<p>According to Robert H. Hewsen for nearly a century—until the establishment of the Lazarev Institute in Moscow in 1815—the monastery of San Lazzaro was the only center of intensive Armenian cultural activity that held the heritage of the Armenian people. During the 18th century, the rediscovery of classical Armenian literature and the creation of an Armenian vernacular by the Mechitarists of San Lazzaro was a key factor in the "Armenian Renaissance." Italian scholar Matteo Miele compared the work of the Mekhitarists carried out in the island to the work of the humanists, painters and sculptors of the Italian Renaissance. For over a century the monastery of San Lazzaro became the "potent agency for the advancement of secular, as well as of religious, knowledge" with "avowed religious, educational, and literary objectives like those of the medieval Benedictine order."</p><br>
<p>The activities of the island monastery, which became a center for Armenian studies, led to a revival of Armenian national consciousness. According to Harry Jewell Sarkiss the emphasis Mekhitarists of San Lazzaro put on "their national history and language was significant, for thereby they planted the seeds" of modern Armenian nationalism. Elizabeth Redgate writes that the developments in intellectual culture and scholarship in Russian Armenia and at the Mkhitarist monasteries of San Lazzaro and Vienna inspired an increased nationalism among Armenians in the 1880s. Mary Tarzian suggests that nationalism among Armenians in the Ottoman Empire emerged from the educational vision of the Mechitarists in San Lazzaro. This view was expressed as early as 1877 when Charles Yriarte wrote that the Armenians "look with justice upon the island of San Lazzaro as the torch which shall one day illuminate Armenia, when the hour comes for her to live again in history and to take her place once more among free nations."</p><br>
<h2>Notable resident scholars</h2><br>
<p>Mkhitar Sebastatsi, the founder of the Mechitarist Order, lived in the island from 1717 until his death in 1749.</p><br>
<p>Mikayel Chamchian (1738–1823), who wrote a comprehensive and influential history of Armenia which was used as a reference work by scholars for over a century, lived in the island since 1757. According to Hacikyan et al. His History of the Armenians (3 volumes, 1781–86) "is a great achievement in Armenian historiography judging by the criteria of his own time."</p><br>
<p>Gabriel Aivazovsky (1812–1880), a philologist, historian and publisher, studied at the island school from 1826 to 1830 and was later the secretary of the Mekhitarian congregation. He founded and edited the San Lazzaro-based journal Bazmavep from 1843 to 1848.</p><br>
<p>Ghevont Alishan, a prominent historian, was a member of the Mechitarist Order since 1838. In 1849–51 he edited the journal Bazmavep and taught at the monastic seminary in 1866–72. He lived in the island permanently from 1872 until his death in 1901. He authored books on the history and geography of Armenians regions of Shirak, Ayrarat, Sisakan (all published in 1881–83) with "amazing accuracy." In 1895 he published two notable works, one on pre-Christian polytheistic religion of Armenians and a study on 3400 species of plants that grow in Armenia.</p><br>
<h2>Notable visitors</h2><br>
<p>A wide range of notable individuals have visited the island through centuries.</p><br>
<h3>Lord Byron</h3><br>
<p>English Romantic poet Lord Byron visited the island from November 1816 to February 1817 He had acquired enough Armenian to translate passages from Classical Armenian into English. He co-authored English Grammar and Armenian in 1817, and Armenian Grammar and English in 1819, where he included quotations from classical and modern Armenian. The room where Byron studied now bears his name and is cherished by the monks. There is also a plaque commemorating Byrons stay. Byron is considered the most prominent of all visitors of the island. James Morris wrote that "many people in Venice, asked to think of San Lazzaro, think first of Byron, and only secondly of the Armenians. Byrons spirit haunts the island."</p><br>
<h3>Foreigners</h3><br>
<p>Pope Pius VII visited the island on May 9, 1800.</p><br>
<p>Since the 19th century numerous notable individuals visited San Lazzaro, such as composers Jacques Offenbach, Gioachino Rossini, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, and Richard Wagner (1859), writers Alfred de Musset and George Sand (1834) Marcel Proust (1900), Ivan Turgenev, Nikolai Gogol, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. Other notable visitors include British art critic John Ruskin (early 1850s), French philosopher and historian Ernest Renan (1850),</p><br>
<p>During the 19th century numerous monarchs visited the island, including Charles IV of Spain, Franz Joseph I of Austria, Umberto I of Italy, Charles I of Romania, Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont, Wilhelmina of the Netherlands, Ludwig I of Bavaria, (1841), Margherita of Savoy, Maximilian I of Mexico, Carlota of Mexico, Edward VII, Prince of Wales and future King of the United Kingdom (1861), Napoleon III (1862), Pedro II of Brazil (1871), Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll (1881), Alexander I of Russia.</p><br>
<p>Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, a Bolshevik revolutionary at the time, worked as a bell-ringer at the monastery of San Lazzaro in 1907.</p><br>
<h3>Armenians</h3><br>
<p>Russian-Armenian marine painter Ivan Aivazovsky visited San Lazzaro in 1840. He met his older brother, Gabriel, who was working at the monastery at that time. At the monastery library and the art gallery Aivazovsky familiarized himself with Armenian manuscripts and Armenian art in general. Another Armenian painter, Vardges Sureniants, visited San Lazzaro in 1881 and researched Armenian miniatures. Ethnographer Yervand Lalayan worked at the island for around six months in 1894. Musicologist Komitas lectured on Armenian folk and sacred music and researched the Armenian music notation (khaz) system in the monastery library in July 1907. The first meeting of poets Yeghishe Charents and Avetik Isahakyan took place in San Lazzaro in 1924. Soviet Armenian composer Aram Khachaturian visited it in 1963, and Soviet Armenian astrophysicist Victor Ambartsumian in 1969.</p><br>
<p>At least two catholicoi (leaders) of the Armenian Apostolic Church—which was historically a rival of the Armenian Catholic Church, which the Mekhitarists are a part of—have visited the island: Vazgen I (in 1956 and 1970) and Karekin II (in 2008).</p><br>
<p>Since independence in 1991 at least two presidents of Armenia—Robert Kocharyan in 2005 and Serzh Sargsyan in 2011—visited San Lazzaro.</p><br>
<h2>Artistic depictions</h2><br>
<p>Numerous artists have painted the island, including</p><br>
<p>Vignette of the Isola di S. Lazzaro degli Armeni by Antonio Visentini (undated), Royal Collection, Windsor Castle</p><br>
<p>Island of Surb Ghazar at night by Gevorg Bashinjaghian (1892), National Gallery of Armenia</p><br>
<p>Byron&#39;s visit to the Mekhitarists in Surb Ghazar Island by Ivan Aivazovsky (1899), National Gallery of Armenia</p><br>
<p>The Armenian Convent by Joseph Pennell (1905), Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division</p><br>
<p>Sb. Ghazar island, Venice by Hovhannes Zardaryan (1958), National Gallery of Armenia</p><br>
<p>Sant&#39;Erasmo is an island in the Venetian Lagoon lying north of the Lido and north east of Venice, Italy.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The island was a port attached to Murano in the 8th century, but is now known for market gardening. Ruined fortifications, including the so-called Torre Massimiliana (Tower of Maximilian), ring the isle. Forts existed in the island as early as the 16th century. After the fall of the Republic of Venice, the French built here a stronghold in 1811-1814. After Napoleon&#39;s defeat, the Austrian Archduke Maximilian of Austria-Este had a tower built here in 1843-1844, and also found here refuge during a revolt. The tower has a polygonal base of 25 m and is surrounded by a ditch. On the upper floor up to 13 cannons could be housed. It was used by the Italian Army as late as World War I.</p><br>
<h2>Today</h2><br>
<p>An annual boat race takes place during the summer. Sant&#39;Erasmo is also known for the waders on sand banks in the lagoon surrounding it.</p><br>
<p>Venise église de San Erasmo.JPGChurch</p><br>
<p>Isola di Sant&#39;Erasmo - Torre Massimiliana.JPGFort</p><br>
<p>Sant&#39;Erasmo (island) Via delle Motte 45.458036, 12.407726.jpgBrown and narrow canals of the island</p><br>
<p>Sant&#39;Erasmo (island) Via delle Motte 45.455718, 12.402925.jpgArtichoke plantations.</p><br>
<p>SantErasmo (island) South end of the island.jpgBeach, south of the island of SantErasmo.</p><br>
<p>The Honde Valley extends from the eastern border of Zimbabwe into Mozambique. The valley is formed as part of the Eastern Highlands mountain range. The valley is about 130 km from Mutare, or 110 km from Nyanga. Mount Inyangani and the Nyanga National Park forms the western boundary of the valley.</p><br>
<h2>Access</h2><br>
<p>Approaching from Mutare, the turn-off is about 50 km along the road towards Nyanga. The road into the valley is tarred and twists and turns steeply as it drops 800 meters in about 20 km. Off the tarred road, there are good dust roads which service most parts of the Valley.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>The climate of Honde Valley falls within the Savannah sub. From late October to around the end of April, the weather is hot and humid. Temperatures may rise up to 28 ˚C and this is the period where most of the rainfall is received. From May to the beginning of July, the temperatures are very low and they may hover around minimums of 2 ˚C while August is very windy. From September to October, it is very hot and the maximum temperatures may average 30 ˚C.</p><br>
<p>Most of the rainfall experienced is of the convectional type. At time orographic rainfalls at various times of the year, in addition to the normal convectional rainfall. This portion of the country, therefore, receives the highest rainfall in the country.</p><br>
<h3>Topography</h3><br>
<p>The average altitude of Honde Valley is around 900m above sea-level as compared to its immediate surroundings which rise above 1800m. This abrupt drop in topography creates the spectacular Mtarazi and adjacent Muchururu Falls, local tourist attractions.</p><br>
<h3>Flora</h3><br>
<p>The 500 square kilometres of the Honde Valley in Zimbabwe are extensively cultivated, often with gravity fed irrigation channels. Extensive use is made of the many smaller tributaries feeding into the Pungwe River in this portion of the Honde Valley.</p><br>
<h3>Fauna</h3><br>
<p>Honde Valley is one of the premier birding destinations in Zimbabwe, offers a wide range of species difficult to find in most other parts of the region, other than in neighbouring Mozambique. This fertile valley lies 850m above sea level and is one of the major tea producing areas of Zimbabwe.</p><br>
<p>Specials: Anchieta&#39;s tchagra, moustached grass-warbler, red-winged warbler, black-winged bishop, red-faced crimsonwing, lesser seedcracker, singing cisticola, twinspot indigobird which parasitizes the red-throated twinspot, scarce swift, pallid honeyguide, green-backed woodpecker, stripe-cheeked greenbul, yellow-streaked greenbul, silvery-cheeked hornbill, white-eared barbet, pale batis, black-throated wattle-eye, variable sunbird, bronzy sunbird, olive sunbird, yellow-bellied waxbill, grey waxbill, blue-spotted wood-dove, black-fronted bush-shrike.</p><br>
<p>Habitats: Lowland and riverine forest, marsh, miombo woodland, tea estate, maize lands.</p><br>
<p>Birding: There are four main birding areas in the valley, the area around Aberfoyle Club; Gleneagles Nature Reserve above the Club, eastern Highland Tea Estate; and Katiyo Tea Estate some 25 km from Aberfoyle.</p><br>
<h3>Water resources</h3><br>
<p>The water supply for the Honde Valley comprises small piped systems and motorised pumps serving small towns, growth points, commercial plantations, service centres and some villages, as well as direct abstractions from the rivers by riparian village communities not connected to developed installations.</p><br>
<p>There are a total of about seven small to medium-sized metered piped water systems at Hauna, Sachisuko, Honde Army, Zindi, Samanga, Mpotedzi and Sahumani. In addition there are other smaller un-metered water supply schemes that serve a number of villages and schools. The known smaller un-metered water supply schemes are Honde “Povo” Pipe Scheme, Chingaira Piped Scheme, St Columbus Secondary School, Sagambe Primary and Secondary School, Marige Water Project, Mahobo Piped Scheme and Mupenga Gravity Water Scheme.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>Since the area is low-lying and hot it is an abundant tea and coffee growing area. The well known Katiyo, Aberfoyle, Rumbizi and Chiwira Tea Estates are among those situated in the valley. However, it is also home to many small scale and susbsistence farmers. There are several non-motorized irrigation schemes in Honde valley.</p><br>
<p>One of the main townships inside the valley is Hauna. Hauna Growth Point now has a community Hospital.</p><br>
<h3>Electricity generation</h3><br>
<p>Electricity generating projects have so far been put in place which are supplying ZESA namely the Nyamhingura,Duru,Pungwe A,B & C and Hauna Power Stations.All plants are managed by Nyangani Renewable Energy (Pvt) Ltd, with an installed capacity of 27 MW; Annual average output of 80,000 Mwh.</p><br>
<h3>Tea estates</h3><br>
<p>Eastern Highlands Tea Estate</p><br>
<h3>Business centers</h3><br>
<p>Hauna Growth point – Hauna Growth point is located in the Honde Valley communal land about 95 km north of Mutare.It is the Growth Point Centre for Mutasa District in Manicaland.There is an aerodrome where small aeroplanes can land and take off.There is also a Police camp called Ruda Police Station which controls all police activities in that part of Mutasa District. There is also Hauna Hospital.It can be reached by a tarred road from Mutare and cellphone coverage is also available on the net-one,telecel and econet networks.</p><br>
<p>Zindi Business centre</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>Honde Valley has a number of schools and tertiary institutions.</p><br>
<h3>Secondary schools</h3><br>
<p>Sagambe High School</p><br>
<p>Chavhanga Secondary School</p><br>
<p>Chisuko Secondary School</p><br>
<p>Muterere High School</p><br>
<p>St Columbus High School</p><br>
<p>Munyuku Secondary School</p><br>
<p>Nyamhingura Secondary</p><br>
<p>Ngarura Secondary School</p><br>
<p>Gatsi High School</p><br>
<p>Rupinda Secondary School</p><br>
<p>St Peters Mandeya Secondary School</p><br>
<p>Sahumani Secondary School</p><br>
<p>Samaringa High School</p><br>
<p>Muparutsa Secondary School</p><br>
<p>St Peters Jombe Secondary School</p><br>
<h3>Tertiary institutions</h3><br>
<p>Honde Mission Technical Training College</p><br>
<p>Dzidzai Technical College</p><br>
<h2>Hospitals and clinics</h2><br>
<p>Hauna District Hospital</p><br>
<p>Chisuko Clinic</p><br>
<p>Sagambe Clinic</p><br>
<p>Katiyo Tea Estate Clinic</p><br>
<p>Chavhanga Clinic</p><br>
<p>St Peter&#39;s Mandeya Clinic</p><br>
<p>Gatsi Clinic</p><br>
<p>Sahumani Clinic</p><br>
<p>Chitombo Clinic</p><br>
<p>Honde Green / Mpotedzi Clinic</p><br>
<p>Samaringa Clinic</p><br>
<p>St Peter&#39;s Jombe Clinic</p><br>
<p>Samanga Clinic</p><br>
<p>Ngarura Clinic</p><br>
<p>Rupinda Clinic</p><br>
<p>Hauna Clinic</p><br>
<p>Honde Mission Clinic</p><br>
<p>Samanga Clinic</p><br>
<p>Kwambana Clinic</p><br>
<p>Zindi Clinic</p><br>
<h2>Entertainment and recreation</h2><br>
<h3>Social clubs</h3><br>
<p>Limpopo Restaurant and Bar</p><br>
<h3>Tourist attractions</h3><br>
<p>Mahwemasimike – a range of mountains which are beautiful to watch for tourists can be seen apart from the Hauna Growth Point.</p><br>
<p>Mtarazi Falls - The longest falls in Zimbabwe coming from Nyanga which falls into the Honde River.</p><br>
<p>Pungwe River – fishing and white water rafting</p><br>
<p>Nyanga National Park</p><br>
<p>Honde River</p><br>
<p>Nyawamba Dam- fishing</p><br>
<p>Chipote (Kapunga) Falls</p><br>
<p>Honde View – a good view of attractive fauna</p><br>
<p>The Andreanof Islands  are a group of islands in the Aleutian Islands, in southwestern Alaska. They are located at about 52° North and 172°57&#39; to 179°09&#39; West.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Andreanof Islands are located between Amchitka Pass and the Rat Islands group to the west, and Amukta Pass and the Islands of Four Mountains group to the east. The islands extend about 275 miles (440 km). The total land area of all islands (including the Delarof Islands) is 1,515.349 sq mi (3,924.737 km²).</p><br>
<p>The total population was 412 persons as of the 2000 census, the vast majority in the city of Adak on Adak Island.</p><br>
<h3>Islands</h3><br>
<p>The Delarof Islands are a subgroup of the Andreanof Islands group as well as the westernmost islands in the group.</p><br>
<p>The largest islands in the group are, from west to east, Gareloi Island, Tanaga Island, Kanaga, Adak Island, Kagalaska Island, Great Sitkin Island, Atka Island, Amlia, and Seguam Island.</p><br>
<p>The islands are usually foggy and are treeless because of the almost constant wind.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Andreanof Islands were named for the Russian navigator, Andreyan Tolstykh, who was the first to explore the islands in 1761.</p><br>
<p>There were several United States military bases on the islands during World War II. The bases on Adak were enlarged and made permanent after the war but were closed in 1995.</p><br>
<p>The Near Islands or Sasignan Islands  are the smallest and westernmost group of the Aleutian Islands in southwestern Alaska.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The largest of the Near Islands are Attu and Agattu. Besides a few rocks in the channel between Attu and Agattu, the other important islands are the Semichi Islands to their northeast, notable among which are Alaid, Nizki and Shemya.</p><br>
<p>About 20 miles to the east-southeast from Shemya are small rocky reefs known as the Ingenstrem Rocks.</p><br>
<p>The total land area of all of the Near Islands is 1,143.785 km² (441.618 sq mi), and their total population was 47 persons as of the 2000 census. The only populated island is Shemya; the USA Coast Guard station on Attu closed in 2010 and all inhabitants left the island later that year.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The islands were named Near Islands by Russian explorers in the 18th century because they were the nearest of the Aleutian Islands to Russia. They are the farthest of the islands from mainland Alaska.</p><br>
<p>During the Second World War, the Japanese Imperial Army occupied the Near Islands in 1942. American forces retook the islands during the Aleutian Islands Campaign in 1943.</p><br>
<p>Shemya or Simiya  is a small island in the Near Islands group of the Semichi Islands chain in the Aleutian Islands archipelago southwest of Alaska, at {{coord|52|43|27|N|174|07|08|E|scale:500000_region:US-AK_type:isle|display=inline,title}}. It has a land area of 5.903 sq mi , and is about 1,200 miles  southwest of Anchorage, Alaska. It is 4.39 km wide and 6.95 km long.</p><br>
<p>The Russian vessel Saint Peter and Paul wrecked at Shemya in 1762. Most of the crew survived.</p><br>
<p>A United States Air Force radar, surveillance, and weather station and aircraft refueling station, including a 10,000 ft (3 km) long runway, opened on Shemya in 1943 and is still in operation. The station, originally Shemya Air Force Base or Shemya Station, had 1,500 workers at its peak in the 1960s. Observations from Shemya were normally the first radar reports of new Russian satellite launches from Tyuratam (Baikonur) in the early days of satellite tracking; see Project Space Track.</p><br>
<p>The United States Air Force airborne intelligence platforms "Cobra Ball", "Rivet Amber," and "Rivet Ball" flew intercontinental ballistic missile tracking flights from this island near the Soviet Union, especially the Kamchatka Peninsula, during the height of the Cold War.</p><br>
<p>In 1956, Northwest Airlines leased Shemya Island from the U.S. government to use as a refueling station on their North Pacific route. According to Northwest&#39;s website, that made them "the first airline to operate its own airport."</p><br>
<p>The station was renamed the Eareckson Air Station in 1993 to honor USAF Colonel William O. Eareckson, who had commanded bomber operations during the Aleutian Campaign of World War II.</p><br>
<p>The station still operates as a radar station and aircraft refueling station with a staff of about 180 people. The 2000 census reported an official resident population of 27 persons on the island.</p><br>
<p>One of the most recognizable features of the island is the COBRA DANE radar system. This radar was built in 1976 and brought on-line in 1977 for the primary mission of intelligence gathering in support of verification of the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) II agreement.</p><br>
<p>Shemya was an important outpost during the Cold War. As part of Project Bluegrass, the White Alice Communications System provided a vital tropospheric scatter communications link to the mainland during the early-1960s to late-1970s. Its two 120 ft parabolic reflectors and 50 kW transmitter output bridged the nearly 400 mile gap to Adak, Alaska.</p><br>
<p>China Eastern Airlines Flight 583 made an emergency landing on the island&#39;s airbase in April 6,1993.</p><br>
<p>The weather on Shemya is very drastic, though the temperatures only vary between single digits to the mid fifties, and the climate is perhaps the most equatorward low-altitude occurrence of a polar climate (ET) in the world, though it is extremely close to a subpolar oceanic climate (Cfc). The island weather is most likely to be cloudy with a mist and the wind is often in the mid 30s to 40 mph. The Japanese current in the Pacific to the south of the island regulates the temperature.</p><br>
<p>The Bimini Road, sometimes called the Bimini Wall, is an underwater rock formation near North Bimini island in the Bahamas. The Road consists of a 0.8 km-long northeast-southwest linear feature composed of roughly rectangular to subrectangular limestone blocks. Various claims have been made for this feature being either a wall, road, pier, breakwater, or other man-made structure. However, credible evidence or arguments are lacking for such an origin.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>On September 2, 1968, while diving in three fathoms (5.5 m) of water off the northwest coast of North Bimini island, Joseph Manson Valentine, Jacques Mayol and Robert Angove encountered an extensive "pavement" of what later was found to be noticeably rounded stones of varying size and thickness. This stone pavement was found to form a northeast-southwest linear feature, which is most commonly known as either the "Bimini Road" or "Bimini Wall". After Valentine, the Bimini Road has been visited and examined by geologists, avocational archaeologists, professional archaeologists, anthropologists, marine engineers, innumerable divers, and many other people. In addition to the Bimini Road, investigators have found two additional "pavement-like" linear features that lie parallel to and shoreward of the Bimini Wall.</p><br>
<h2>Physical characteristics</h2><br>
<p>The Bimini Wall and two linear features lying shoreward of it are composed of flat-lying, tabular, and rectangular, subrectangular, polygonal, and irregular blocks. Descriptions of the Bimini Road found in various books and articles greatly exaggerate the regularity and rectangularity of the blocks composing these features. The Bimini Road, the largest of three linear features, is 0.8 km long, a northeast/southwest-trending feature with a pronounced hook at its southwest end. It consists of stone blocks measuring as much as 3 - in horizontal dimensions, with the average size being 2 -. The larger blocks show complementary edges, which are lacking in the smaller blocks. The two narrower and shorter, approximately 50 and-long linear features lying shoreward of the Bimini Road consist of smaller tabular stone blocks that are only 1 - in maximum horizontal breadth. Having rounded corners, the blocks composing these pavements resemble giant loaves of bread. The blocks consist of limestone composed of carbonate-cemented shell hash that is called "beachrock". Beachrock is native to the Bahamas. The highly rounded nature of the blocks forming the Bimini Road indicates that a significant thickness of their original surface has been removed by biological, physical, and chemical processes. Given the degree that these blocks have been eroded, it is highly implausible that any original surface features, including any tool marks and inscriptions, would have survived this degree of erosion.</p><br>
<p>After a very detailed examination of the Bimini Road and the other linear features, Gifford and Ball made the following observations.</p><br>
<p>As noted below, these observations are disputed by other investigators. For example, some investigators state that where sand had washed away between the seams, another course of blocks can be seen along with small blocks underlying these blocks. However, detailed evidence that clearly documents the alleged presence of a continuous second layer (course) of stones beneath the stones forming the currently exposed "pavement" has not yet been published in a reputable, scientific venue with the detail that is needed for critical evaluation. Pictures posted on various Web pages of stones alleged to be artificial "wedge stones" and "prop stones" fail as convincing evidence for a second course of stones because they are typically smaller in size, do not form a continuous course, and too infrequently lie directly beneath the blocks that form the surface of the Bimini Road. This is not what would be expected of an actual underlying course of man-made masonry.</p><br>
<p>David Zink states:</p><br>
<p>This led him to conclude:</p><br>
<p>In addition, early studies of the Bimini Road, i.e. Gifford and Ball and David Zink, report taking numerous samples and cores for examination. It is also safe to presume that a certain number of the innumerable visitors to the Bimini Road have chipped off pieces of it. Scientific sampling and souvenir hunting would have left behind modern "tool marks" on the various blocks composing the Bimini Road for later investigators to find.</p><br>
<h2>Age of the Bimini Road</h2><br>
<p>Attempts have been made to determine the age of this feature using different techniques. These include direct radiocarbon dating of the stones composing the Bimini Road and Uranium-thorium dating of the marine limestone on which the Bimini Road lies.</p><br>
<p>In 1978, the radiocarbon laboratory operated by the Department of Geology at the University of Miami dated samples from a core collected by E. A. Shinn in 1977 from the Bimini Road. In 1979, Calvert and others reported dates of 2780±70 yr BP (UM-1359), 3500±80 yr BP (UM-1360), and 3350±90 yr BP (UM-1361) from whole-rock samples; a date of 3510±70 yr BP (UM-1362), from shells extracted from the beachrock core; and dates of 2770±80 yr BP (UM-1364) and 2840±70 yr BP (UM-1365) from carbonate cementing the beachrock core. These dates are temporally consistent in that the shells composing the beachrock core from the Bimini Road dated older than the cement holding them together as beachrock. These dates can be interpreted as indicating that the shells composing the Bimini Road are, uncorrected for temporal and environmental variations in radiocarbon, about 3,500 years old. Because of time-averaging and other taphonomic factors, a random collection of shells likely would yield a radiocarbon date that is a few hundred years earlier than when the final accumulation of shells, which were cemented to form beachrock, actually occurred. The radiocarbon dates from the cement demonstrate that the beachrock composing the Bimini Road formed about 2,800 radiocarbon years ago by the cementation of pre-existing sediments that accumulated about 1,300 years earlier. Compared to the dates from the shells and the cement, it appears that the whole-rock dates reflect samples containing varying proportions of shell and cement without any significant contamination by younger radiocarbon. Both these dates and interpretation are consistent with the detailed research by Davaud and Strasser that concluded that the layer of beachrock composing the Bimini Road formed beneath the surface of North Bimini Island and was only exposed by coastal erosion about 1,900 to 2,000 years ago.</p><br>
<p>Proponents of the Bimini Road being a manmade feature argue that these radiocarbon dates are invalid because they were obtained entirely from whole-rock samples and subject to contamination from younger carbon. The background data reported by Calvert and others In their detailed research, Davaud and Strasser accepted the radiocarbon dates obtained from the beachrock composing the Bimini Road from the radiocarbon laboratory at the University of Miami as valid indicators of its age.</p><br>
<p>Gifford and Ball that underlies the beachrock that composes the Bimini Road. They described this sample as being "Whole rock marine limestone under beachrock off Paradise Point, North Bimini; some recrystallisation." This sample yielded a uranium-thorium date of 14,992±258 BP (7132-19/2). Supporters of the idea that the Bimini Road is a man-made structure frequently cite this date in support of it being artificial.</p><br>
<p>The uranium-thorium date published by Gifford and Ball Finally, it is well documented that about 15,000 calendar years ago, sea level in this region was between 95 and below present sea level. As a result, the location from where Gifford and Ball collected the sample of limestone was between 90 and (295 and 312 feet) above sea level at the time indicated by the uranium-thorium date of 14,992±258 BP (7132-19/2). Therefore, it is physically impossible for the marine limestone underlying the Bimini Road to have accumulated around 15,000 BP. Thus, this uranium-thorium date is a meaningless, invalid date lacking any scientific significance. Because this date clearly lacks any scientific meaning, geologists and archaeologists rarely mention it in their discussions of the Bimini Road. The marine limestone underlying the Bimini Road dates to the Sangamonian Stage, the last interglacial, when sea level was last high enough for the marine sediments, now lithified into limestone, to have accumulated.</p><br>
<h2>Geological explanation</h2><br>
<p>The consensus among geologists and archaeologists is that the Bimini Road is a natural feature composed of beachrock that orthogonal and other joints have broken up into rectangular, subrectangular, polygonal, and irregular blocks. The geologists and anthropologists who have personally studied the Bimini Road include Eugene Shinn of the USA Geological Survey; Marshall McKusick. an Associate Professor of Anthropology at University of Iowa; W. Harrison of Environmental Research Associates, Virginia, Beach Virginia; Mahlon M. Ball and J. A. Gifford of the Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami; and Eric Davaud about the geology of the Bimini Islands. Calvert and others identified the samples that they dated from the Bimini Wall as being natural beachrock.</p><br>
<p>Detailed studies by E. Davaud and A. Strasser Eugene Shinn discusses a similar, but not identical, process by which the Bimini Road could have been created.</p><br>
<p>The downward movement of large, solid objects by scour and settling processes has been documented by Jesse E. McNinch, John T. Wells, and other researchers. They concluded that large, heavy objects could sink into the sea bottom by several m without significant lateral movement as the result of scour and settling processes if an erosion-resistant layer of sediment was not encountered. In case of the beachrock blocks composing the Bimini Road and other pieces underlying it, the erosion-resistant layer that limited how far they were dropped downward by scour and settling processes is the Pleistocene limestone on which they now rest.</p><br>
<p>Finally, pieces of thinner layers or lenses of beachrock underlying the primary bed that was broken up and dropped downward to create the Bimini Road would be trapped beneath the blocks as they also were broken up and dropped by erosion. The trapping of these fragments of beachrock beneath the blocks composing the Bimini Road, as erosion removed loose sediments and dropped them on the surface of the Pleistocene limestone, would have created the so-called "prop" and "wedge" rocks and blocks alleged to be a "second course" of "masonry". Presuming that the blocks of beachrock forming the Bimini Road originally formed at some unknown depth below sea level and have been dropped by erosion by several metres, dating the age of the Bimini Road by its relation to past sea level would be a useless technique that would produce misleading results.</p><br>
<p>Natural pavements composed of stone blocks, which often are far more rectangular and consistent in size than the blocks composing the Bimini Road, created by orthogonal and other jointing within sedimentary rocks, including beachrock, are quite common and found throughout the world. They include a popular tourist attraction, the Tessellated pavement of Eaglehawk Neck, Tasmania; jointed bedrock that has been completely misidentified as a man-made "Phoenician Fortress and Furnace" in Oklahoma; a "tiled pavement" reported from Battlement Mesa in western Colorado; the tessellated pavement of the Bouddi Peninsula near Sydney, Australia; and Arches National Park in Utah. Natural beachrock pavements that are identical to the Bimini Road have been found eroding out of the east shore of Loggerhead Key of Dry Tortugas and submerged beneath 90 m of water at Pulley Ridge off the southwest coast of Florida.</p><br>
<h2>Claims of a human origin</h2><br>
<p>Although it is generally considered to be a naturally occurring geological feature, as a result of the unusual arrangement and shape of the stones some believe that the formation is the remains of an ancient road, wall, or some other deliberately constructed feature. For example, articles published in Argosy (an American pulp magazine) and either authored or coauthored by Robert F. Marx, a professional diver and visitor to the Bimini Road, argued that the Bimini Road is an artificial structure. In a 1971 Argosy article, stated that there was "little doubt" that the massive stone blocks were cut by people. The same article noted that he was part of an expedition sponsored by North American Rockwell that included Edgar Mitchell, the astronaut, as leader; Dimitri Rebikoff; and "a number of psychics from the Edgar Cayce Foundation."</p><br>
<p>Others who consider the Bimini undersea formation to be man-made, as opposed to natural beachrock, are Joseph Manson Valentine, zoologist; All claim to have investigated the formations in person, and claim to have observed more than one horizontal layer of blocks, at least in places. However, multiple layers of block can result naturally from systematic fracturing of sedimentary rock where multiple layers of sedimentary rock lie on top of each, as can be observed in the case of the tessellated pavement of Tasmania exposed at Eaglehawk Neck on the Tasman Peninsula.</p><br>
<p>In his controversial book 1421: The Year China Discovered America and its accompanying documentary, 1421: The Year China Discovered America? amateur historian Gavin Menzies claimed that when Chinese admiral Zheng Hes fleet was in the process of circumnavigating the globe in 1421-3, it stopped at Bimini - see 1421 hypothesis. According to Menzies, half of the fleet, under the command of admiral Zhou Wen, was caught in a hurricane near Bimini and built the Bimini Road from beach rock and the ships ballast as a slipway to haul damaged junks ashore for refitting and repairs of damage caused by the hurricane.</p><br>
<h3>Sci Fi Channel presentation</h3><br>
<p>Sci Fis Quest for Atlantis: Startling New Secrets followed several different groups researching possible locations for the legendary Atlantis, one of which focused on the Bimini Road. Greg Little led a team of researchers on a dive to recover objects at Bimini Bay. Little and his team reported the discovery of an entire second layer of square-cut rocks with similar dimensions beneath the stones of the Bimini Road. However, they have yet to formally publish in any detail the evidence and observations that demonstrate the presence of this underlying layer and the square-cut nature of its blocks. As a result, its existence remains unproven. Little believes that his discovery suggests that the Bimini Road may actually be one part of an entire wall or water dock. He has also published an informal critique of Shinns Skeptical Inquirer article. The Bimini Road was also discussed in season 4, episode 22 of the TV series In Search Of, as well as season 4, episode 22 of the History channel&#39;s TV series Ancient Aliens.</p><br>
<p>Koolau Range is a name given to the fragmented remnant of the eastern or windward shield volcano of the Hawaiian island of Oahu. It was designated a National Natural Landmark in 1972.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>It is not a mountain range in the normal sense, because it was formed as a single mountain called Koolau Volcano (koolau means "windward" in Hawaiian, cognate of the toponym Tokelau). What remains of Koolau is the western half of the original volcano that was destroyed in prehistoric times when the entire eastern half&mdash;including much of the summit caldera&mdash;slid cataclysmically into the Pacific Ocean. Remains of this ancient volcano lie as massive fragments strewn nearly 100 mi over the ocean floor to the northeast of Oahu. The modern Koolau mountain forms Oahus windward coast and rises behind the leeward coast city of Honolulu &mdash; on its leeward slopes and valleys are located most of Honolulus residential neighborhoods.</p><br>
<p>The volcano is thought to have first erupted on the ocean floor more than 2.5 million years ago. It eventually reached sea level and continued to grow in elevation until about 1.7 million years ago, when the volcano became dormant. The volcano remained dormant for hundreds of thousands of years, during which time erosion ate away at the initially smooth slopes of the shield-shaped mountain; and the entire mass subsided considerably. The highest elevation perhaps exceeded 3,000 m; today, the summit of the tallest peak, Puu Konahuanui is only 3,100 feet.</p><br>
<p>After hundreds of thousands of years of dormancy, Koolau volcano began to erupt again. Some thirty eruptions over the past 500,000 years or so have created many of the landmarks around eastern Oahu, such as Diamond Head, Koko Head (Hanauma Bay), Koko Crater, Punchbowl Crater, Tantalus, and Āliapaakai, and are collectively known as the Honolulu Volcanic Series. Geologists do not always agree on the dates of these more recent eruptions, some dating them to around 32,000 years ago, others to as recently as 10,000 years ago. Geologists believe that there is at least a remote possibility that Koolau volcano will erupt again.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>There are three roads that tunnel through the southern part of the Koolau Range, connecting Honolulu to the Windward Coast. From leeward to windward:</p><br>
<p>Hawaii Route 61 (Pali Highway)</p><br>
<p>Hawaii Route 63 (Likelike Highway)</p><br>
<p>Interstate H-3</p><br>
<p>Mount Charleston, officially named Charleston Peak, at 11,916 ft, is the highest mountain in both the Spring Mountains and Clark County, in Nevada, United States. It is the eighth-highest mountain in the state. Well separated from higher peaks by large, low basins, it is the most topographically prominent peak in Nevada, and the eighth-most-prominent peak in the contiguous United States. It is located about 35 mi northwest of Las Vegas within the Mount Charleston Wilderness, which is within the Spring Mountains National Recreation Area of the Humboldt-Toiyabe National Forest.</p><br>
<p>Mount Charleston is a year-round getaway for Las Vegas&#39;s residents and visitors, with a number of hiking trails and a modest ski area. The mountain, which is snow-capped more than half the year, can be seen from parts of the Las Vegas Strip when looking toward the west. Mount Charleston has nearly 200 camp sites and over 150 picnic areas, some of which are RV-accessible.</p><br>
<p>The village of Mount Charleston lies at its base to the east.</p><br>
<p>The state of Nevada issues license plates with the caption "Mt. Charleston" and an image of the peak in the background. Sales of the plate supports the natural environment of the Mount Charleston area through grants administered by the Nevada Division of State Lands.</p><br>
<p>Levidi  is a small town and a former municipality in Arcadia, Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Tripoli, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 312.641 km. The town is situated on the northeastern slope of the Mainalo mountains, at about 850 m elevation. While the Mainalo is densely forested, the plains towards the northeast contain farmlands. Levidi is 9 km northwest of Kapsas, 10 km east of Vytina, 12 km southwest of Kandila and 20 km northwest of Tripoli. It is at the junction of the Greek National Road 74  and the Greek National Road 66 . Levidi was the site of several battles during the Greek War of Independence from the Ottoman Empire.</p><br>
<h2>Subdivisions</h2><br>
<p>The municipal unit Levidi is subdivided into the following communities (constituent villages in brackets):</p><br>
<p>Chotoussa</p><br>
<p>Daras</p><br>
<p>Kandila (Kandila, Diakopi, Moni Kandilas)</p><br>
<p>Kardaras</p><br>
<p>Komi</p><br>
<p>Levidi</p><br>
<p>Limni</p><br>
<p>Orchomenos (Orchomenos, Roussis)</p><br>
<p>Palaiopyrgos</p><br>
<p>Panagitsa</p><br>
<p>Vlacherna</p><br>
<h2>Historical population</h2><br>
<p>The mountains of the Massif des Écrins form the core of the Écrins National Park in France.</p><br>
<h2>Mountains</h2><br>
<p>Barre des Écrins 4102 m</p><br>
<p>La Meije 3983 m</p><br>
<p>Ailefroide 3954 m</p><br>
<p>Mont Pelvoux 3946 m</p><br>
<p>Pic Sans Nom 3913 m</p><br>
<p>Pic Gaspard 3883 m</p><br>
<p>Le Râteau 3809 m</p><br>
<p>Pic Coolidge 3774 m</p><br>
<p>La Grande Ruine 3765 m</p><br>
<p>Roche Forio 3730 m</p><br>
<p>Les Bans 3669 m</p><br>
<p>Les Agneaux 3663 m</p><br>
<p>Pic de la Grave 3628 m</p><br>
<p>Pic de Neige Cordier 3614 m</p><br>
<p>Aiguille du Plat de la Selle 3597 m</p><br>
<p>Les Rouies 3589 m</p><br>
<p>Olan 3564 m</p><br>
<p>La Plaret 3564 m</p><br>
<p>Tête de l&#39;Etret 3559 m</p><br>
<p>Tête de Gandoliere 3544 m</p><br>
<p>L&#39;Encoula 3533 m</p><br>
<p>Pointe des Arcas 3478 m</p><br>
<p>Roche de la Muzelle 3465 m</p><br>
<p>Pointe Guyard 3460 m</p><br>
<p>Tête des Fétoules 3459 m</p><br>
<p>Le Sirac 3440 m</p><br>
<p>Tête du Rouget 3435 m</p><br>
<p>Pic de Says 3421 m</p><br>
<p>Grande Aiguille de la Bérarde 3419 m</p><br>
<p>Aiguille des Arias 3403 m</p><br>
<p>Pointe de l&#39;Aiglière 3308 m</p><br>
<p>Pointe Swan 3294 m</p><br>
<p>Le Jandri 3288 m</p><br>
<p>Tetes des Soulaures 3242 m</p><br>
<p>Pointe de Rougnoux 3179 m</p><br>
<p>Vieux Chaillol 3163 m</p><br>
<p>Têtes des Vautisse 3156 m</p><br>
<p>Pic Combeynot 3155 m</p><br>
<p>Aiguille Dibona 3130 m</p><br>
<p>Pic des Souffles 3098 m</p><br>
<p>Tête de Dormillouse 3084 m</p><br>
<p>Pointe des Estaris 3080 m</p><br>
<p>Le Rochail 3023 m</p><br>
<p>Aiguille de Cedera 2883 m</p><br>
<p>Grun de Saint Maurice 2776 m</p><br>
<h2>Glaciers</h2><br>
<p>Glacier Blanc</p><br>
<p>Glacier Noir</p><br>
<p>Nelson Island  is an island in the Bethel Census Area of southwestern Alaska. It is 42 miles  long and 20–35 miles  wide. With an area of 843 square miles , it is the 15th largest island in the United States. It is separated from the Alaska mainland to its north by the Ningaluk River, to its east by the Kolavinarak River and from Nunivak Island to its southwest by the Etolin Strait.</p><br>
<p>Nelson Island has three villages, all located on the Bering Sea coast in the southwest part of the island: Tununak in the west, Toksook Bay Which includes a bedroom Type Suburban neighborhood called Umkumiut In Toksook bays&#39;s city limits. southeast of Tununak, and thirdly Nightmute in the farther east near the edge of the Island.</p><br>
<p>A snowmobile trail connects the Tununak and Nightmute in the winter. These three communities comprise the entire population of the island at 1,065 inhabitants as of the 2000 census. The largest community is Toksook Bay. The rest of the island, over 77 percent of its area, is unpopulated.</p><br>
<p>The village of Newtok, on the mainland across the Ningaluk River north of the island, is in the process of being moved to Nelson Island, due to erosion of the water table in the area where Newtok is currently located.</p><br>
<p>The natives are Yupiit who maintain a predominately traditional diet, fishing and hunting musk ox and caribou.</p><br>
<p>Nelson Island was named after Edward William Nelson, a Smithsonian Institution naturalist who studied the island and people there in 1878.</p><br>
<p>Chiemsee is a freshwater lake in Bavaria, Germany, near Rosenheim. It is often called "the Bavarian Sea". The rivers Tiroler Achen and Prien flow into the lake from the south, and the river Alz flows out towards the north. The Alz flows into the Inn which then merges with the Danube. The Chiemsee is divided into the bigger, north section, in the northeast, called Weitsee, and the Inselsee, in the southwest.</p><br>
<p>The region around the Chiemsee is Chiemgau and is a famous recreation area.</p><br>
<h2>Origin</h2><br>
<p>The Chiemsee was formed, like many other pre-alpine lakes, at the end of the last ice age about 10,000 years ago from a hollow carved out by a glacier (a Zungenbecken). Originally the lake covered an area of almost 240 km&sup2, which is about three times its present area. Within 10,000 years its area had shrunk to around 80 km&sup2;. Before 1904 the water level was lowered by about a metre. As a result, large areas of dry land were reclaimed.</p><br>
<h2>Islands</h2><br>
<p>There are three main islands on the lake: Herreninsel, the largest, with an area of 238 hectare; Frauenchiemsee, 15.5 hectare, also called Herreninsel ("gentlemens island") and Fraueninsel ("ladies island"); and uninhabited Krautinsel, 3.5 hectare. It is known as "Cabbage Island" because in the Middle Ages it was cultivated with cabbages and other vegetables.</p><br>
<p>Herreninsel has a palace built by King Ludwig II in 1878 called Herrenchiemsee, which was never completed but was meant to be a replica of the Palace of Versailles. Many of its rooms are open to tourists; tours of the palace and its extensive grounds are conducted throughout the summer.</p><br>
<p>Frauenchiemsee, the smaller of the two main islands, houses a Benedictine nunnery, built in 782, as well as a small village. The nuns make a liquor called Klosterlikör ("cloister liquor") and marzipan (almond paste).</p><br>
<p>There are also three very small islands: the Schalch, to the west of Frauenchiemsee; and two unnamed islands, 54 and 80 meters south of the Krautinsel, with an area of 30 m&sup2; each.</p><br>
<p>Penny&#39;s Bay or Chok Ko Wan  is a bay in north-eastern Lantau Island, and is the site of the Hong Kong Disneyland Resort, which consists of the Hong Kong Disneyland theme park, Disneyland Hotel, and Disney&#39;s Hollywood Hotel, and the Inspiration Lake. It is connected by a highway and a rail connection on the MTR Disneyland Resort Line to Sunny Bay Station. Most of its area is part of Tsuen Wan District, but a small southern portion falls in Islands District.</p><br>
<h2>Dioxin contamination</h2><br>
<p>At least in Ming Dynasty( A.D 1368-A.D. 1644), Penny&#39; Bay was already a trading port.</p><br>
<p>( Please refer to: http://www.amo.gov.hk/form/Pennys%20Bay%20work%20sheet.pdf)</p><br>
<p>Before the reclamation of the bay, Cheoy Lee Shipyard operated in the bay from 1964 to April 2001. The Government acquired the land from the owners for the sum of HK$1.48 billion, and paid HK$22.7 million in additional compensation, according to a Public Works Subcommittee paper from May 2002.</p><br>
<p>The Government had not realised that its operations accumulated 30000 cubic metres of soil contaminated with dioxin, heavy metals, and hydrocarbons. The solid waste was dug up and transferred to To Kau Wan on the north shore of Northeast Lantau for temporary processing, and finally incinerated at the Chemical Waste Treatment Centre on the Tsing Yi Island amid protests by residents. The total cleanup cost not taken into account at the time of acquisition was estimated at 450 million Hong Kong dollars.</p><br>
<p>Lake George or Lake Welaka is a broad and shallow brackish lake on the St. Johns River in the USA state of Florida.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The St. Johns River flows out of the lake at the north end at Rocky Point. To the east of this is Salt Cove, taking the flow from Salt Creek. Just south of Salt Cove is Lisk Point, named for a Dr. Lisk who built a house near the point. Steamboats coming down from Jacksonville made a counter clockwise loop around the lake with their first stop at Lisk Point.</p><br>
<p>Lake George is the second largest lake in Florida, after Lake Okeechobee. Lake George was the third largest lake behind Lake Apopka, but conversion of the littoral zone on the northern side of Lake Apopka to farm fields in the previous century reduced its surface area.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The name of Lake Welaka is taken from "Welaka" (meaning "chain of lakes"), the name for the St. Johns River in the language of the Timucua, who inhabited the region prior to European settlement. The first European to visit the lake was Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, who as the Spanish governor of Florida, explored the St. Johns River in the spring of 1596.</p><br>
<p>Later, the Florida territory was sold to Britain. The royal botanist in America to King George III, John Bartram, explored the St. Johns River in 1765. It was John Bartram who gave the lake the name Lake George, in honor of his king.</p><br>
<p>In more recent years, Lake George has been home to an operational USA Military bombing and aerial mining range. The range is affiliated with the USA Navy&#39;s Pinecastle Bombing Range located in the Ocala National Forest just west of Lake George. The bombing ranges date back to World War II, when the Navy built bomb targets in Lake George and nearby Crescent Lake, and stationed personnel in the area to maintain the targets and perform search and rescue operations for downed pilots. Today, the range is under the operational control of nearby Naval Air Station Jacksonville.</p><br>
<p>The lake also hosts a wide variety of wildlife ranging from migratory water birds and alligators to a number of normally marine animals. Local springs in Lake George (and throughout the St Johns River) impart enough salt to the system to make the habitat suitable to resident and migratory marine species like Atlantic stingray, various species of mullet, striped bass and blue crabs. There is a large enough blue crab population to support a local fishery, making it one of the only fresh water blue crab fisheries in the world.</p><br>
<p>The Spokane Valley is a valley of the Spokane River, in the USA state of Washington.</p><br>
<p>The Valley contains the cities of Spokane Valley, WA, Liberty Lake, WA, and the town of Millwood, WA (All of which are suburbs of Spokane). The valley is bounded on the north and south by the Selkirk Mountains, on the west by the city of Spokane, and on the east by the Rathdrum Prairie at the Idaho state border.</p><br>
<p>Mica Peak, located south of the valley, is the southernmost peak in the Shelkirk Range. The mountain, along with surrounding peaks, separates the Spokane Valley from the Palouse.</p><br>
<p>The Valley contains part of the Spokane Valley-Rathdrum Prairie Aquifer.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>Most of the valley is classified as a Mediterranean Climate (Köppen Csa and Csb&#39;), however the Saltese Uplands are classified as semi-arid (Köppen Bsk).</p><br>
<p>The Rocas Atoll  is the only atoll in the South Atlantic Ocean, belonging to the Brazilian State of Rio Grande do Norte. It is located approximately 260 km northeast of Natal and 145 km west of the Fernando de Noronha archipelago. The atoll is of volcanic origin and coralline formation.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The oval atoll is 3.7 km long and 2.5 km wide. The lagoon is up to 6 m deep and has an area of 7.1 km&sup2;. The land area of the two islets (Cemitério Island, southwest and Farol Cay, northwest) is 0.36 km&sup2;. Farol Cay accounts for almost two thirds of the aggregate area. The highest point is a sand dune in the south of larger Farol Cay, with a height of 6 m. Both islets are overgrown with grasses, bushes and a few palm trees. The population consists of crabs, spiders, scorpions, sand fleas, beetles, large roaches, and many species of birds.</p><br>
<p>There is a lighthouse of the Brazilian Navy that has been in operation and maintained since the 1960s, at the Northern end of Farol Bay. In its vicinity is a derelict lighthouse from 1933.</p><br>
<p>The atoll is a wildlife sanctuary, and in 2001 was designated by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. Numerous turtles, sharks, dolphins and birds live in the area. The atoll consists mainly of coral and red algae. The coral ring is almost closed, with a 200 m wide channel on the North side and a much narrower channel on the West side.</p><br>
<p>The atoll and surrounding waters are contained in the Atol das Rocas Biological Reserve.</p><br>
<p>The reserve it is currently used solely for scientific research.</p><br>
<p>Due to their remote location, the islands remain largely undisturbed by human activities. On the other hand, the remoteness also limits researchers&#39; access to the islands and few studies have been developed on this atoll. The entomological fauna from Atol das Rocas was already recorded.</p><br>
<h2>Pop culture</h2><br>
<p>The atoll was the site of a missile attack on a Cobra satellite communications tracking station and robotics storage center, in the G.I. Joe comic title from Marvel Comics.</p><br>
<p>The Castle, Newcastle is a medieval fortification in Newcastle upon Tyne, England, built on the site of the fortress which gave the City of Newcastle its name. The most prominent remaining structures on the site are the Castle Keep, the castle&#39;s main fortified stone tower, and the Black Gate, its fortified gatehouse.</p><br>
<p>Use of the site for defensive purposes dates from Roman times, when it housed a fort and settlement called Pons Aelius, guarding a bridge over the River Tyne. In 1080, a wooden motte and bailey style castle was built on the site of the Roman fort, which was the New Castle upon Tyne. It was built by Robert Curthose, eldest son of William the Conqueror, having returned south from a campaign against Malcolm III of Scotland. The stone Castle Keep was built between 1172 and 1177 by Henry II on the site of Curthose&#39;s castle. The Black Gate was added between 1247 and 1250 by Henry III.</p><br>
<p>The site is in the centre of Newcastle, and lies to the east of Newcastle station. The 75 ft gap between the Keep and the Gatehouse is almost entirely filled by a railway viaduct, carrying the East Coast Main Line from Newcastle to Scotland. The Castle Keep and Black Gate pre-dated the construction of the Newcastle town wall, construction of which started sometime around 1265, and did not form part of it. Nothing remains of the Roman fort or the original motte and bailey castle. The Keep is a Grade I listed building, and a Scheduled Ancient Monument.</p><br>
<p>The Keep and Black Gate are now managed by the Old Newcastle Project under the Heart of the City Partnership as one combined visitor attraction, "Newcastle Castle".</p><br>
<h2>Earliest history</h2><br>
<p>In the mid-2nd century, the Romans built the first bridge to cross the River Tyne at the place where Newcastle now stands. The bridge was called Pons Aelius or ‘Bridge of Aelius’, Aelius being the family name of Emperor Hadrian, who was responsible for the Roman wall built along Tyne-Solway Gap. The Romans built a fort to protect the river crossing which was at the foot of the Tyne Gorge. The fort was situated on rocky outcrop overlooking the new bridge.</p><br>
<p>At some unknown time in the Anglo-Saxon age, the site of Newcastle came to be known as Monkchester. In the late 7th century, a cemetery was established on the site of the Roman castle.</p><br>
<h2>Norman castle</h2><br>
<p>In 1080, the Norman king, William I, sent his eldest son, Robert Curthose, north to defend the kingdom against the Scots. After his campaign, he moved to Monkchester and began the building of a ‘New Castle’. This was of the "motte-and-bailey" type of construction, a wooden tower on top of an earthen mound (motte), surrounded by a moat and wooden stockade (bailey).</p><br>
<p>In 1095, the Earl of Northumbria, Robert de Mowbray, rose up against William Rufus and Rufus sent an army north to crush the revolt and to capture the castle. From then on the castle became crown property and was an important base from which the king could control the northern barons.</p><br>
<h2>The new stone castle</h2><br>
<p>Not a trace of the tower or mound of the motte and bailey castle remains now. Henry II replaced it with a rectangular stone keep, which was built between 1172 and 1177 at a cost of £1,444. A stone bailey, in the form of a triangle, replaced the previous wooden one. The master mason or architect, Maurice, also built Dover Castle. The great outer gateway to the castle, called ‘the Black Gate’, was built later, between 1247 and 1250, in the reign of Henry III. During the civil wars at the end of King John&#39;s reign, it was under the control of Philip of Oldcoates.</p><br>
<p>Additional protection to the castle was provided late in the 13th century when stone walls were constructed, with towers, to enclose the town. Ironically, the safety provided by the town walls led to the neglect of the fabric of the castle. In 1589, during the reign of Queen Elizabeth the castle was described as being ruinous. From the early 17th century onward, this situation was made worse by the construction of shops and houses on much of the site.</p><br>
<h2>English Civil War</h2><br>
<p>In 1643, during the English Civil War, the Royalist Mayor of Newcastle, Sir John Marley, repaired the keep and probably also refortified the castle. In 1644 the Scottish army crossed the border in support of the Parliamentarians and the Scottish troops besieged Newcastle for three months until the garrison surrendered. The town walls were extensively damaged and the final forces to surrender on 19 October 1644 did so from the Castle keep.</p><br>
<p>During the 16th to the 18th century, the keep was used as a prison. By 1800, there were a large number of houses within the boundaries of the castle.</p><br>
<h2>Nineteenth century</h2><br>
<p>In 1809, Newcastle Corporation bought the keep and provided it with a roof and battlements. In addition the private dwellings within the castle boundaries were demolished. The keep was restored in 1810, 1812 and 1848. In the mid 19th century the arrival of the railway in Newcastle led to a viaduct to be constructed to the north of the keep and crossing the site of the castle. As a result, only the keep and the Black Gate now remain.</p><br>
<h2>Twentieth century</h2><br>
<p>The keep was restored between the 1960s and 1980s when crumbling outside stonework was replaced and the interior cleaned.</p><br>
<h2>The Black Gate</h2><br>
<p>The "Black Gate" was added to Newcastle Castle between 1247 and 1250, forming an additional barbican in front of the earlier north gate of the castle. It consisted of two towers with a passage running between them. On either side of the passage was a vaulted guardroom. There was a drawbridge at the front (facing west) and another at the rear. There was also a portcullis which could be raised and lowered to seal the entrance passage.</p><br>
<p>The original building would probably have had a flat roof, but in 1618 James I leased the gatehouse to a courtier, Alexander Stephenson. Stephenson substantially altered the gatehouse, rebuilding the upper floors. Stephenson then let the Black Gate out to various tenants, one of whom was a merchant, named Patrick Black. It was he who gave his name to the Black Gate.</p><br>
<p>Eventually houses were built along both sides of the passageway, and one part of the building became a public house. By the early part of the nineteenth century, the Black Gate had become a slum tenement, housing up to sixty people.</p><br>
<p>Blackgate was leased to the Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle upon Tyne in the 1880s, which extensively restored it between 1883 and 1885. It was the Society that added the top floor and pitched roof. The Society has held regular meetings there ever since. The drawbridges to the front and rear have been replaced by wooden footbridges.</p><br>
<h2>Current building</h2><br>
<p>The Keep is a Grade I listed building, and a Scheduled Ancient Monument. It is a roughly square building, measuring 62 ft by 56 ft and 81 ft tall. The entrance leads via flights of stairs to the second floor and into the Great Hall, the largest room in the keep, measuring 30 ft by 24 ft. The Black Gate was approached via a drawbridge across a moat. A wooden bridge has replaced the drawbridge. The original gate had a portcullis, and the recesses where this fitted can still be seen. The keep is currently owned by Newcastle City Council and managed by the Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle upon Tyne, one of the world&#39;s oldest antiquarian societies.</p><br>
<p>The Castle Keep can be visited today. The keep is also notable in having the main East Coast railway line running through the centre of the grounds. In particular, the battlements offer fine views over the River Tyne quayside, the cathedral and Newcastle station. The castle is reputedly haunted, and has been subject to many paranormal investigations. It featured in an episode of Most Haunted.</p><br>
<p>The Castle Keep and the Black Gate have recently been refurbished by the Heart of the City partnership and reopened on 21 March 2015 as Newcastle Castle. In addition to improved accessibility, new additions include an education centre, reception/gift shop and museum room in the Black Gate and audio-visual installations in the Castle Keep, telling the story of the site and the people who have lived there over the years.</p><br>
<p>The Brontë Waterfall is a small waterfall located about a mile south west of Stanbury, near Haworth, West Yorkshire, England. The area surrounding the waterfall is mainly moorland and farmland but is part of Brontë Country. It is an area of outstanding beauty and famous for its association with the Brontë sisters. Below the falls can be found an old stone bridge named Brontë Bridge across South Dean Beck. The bridge was destroyed in a flash flood in May 1989 and rebuilt in 1990.</p><br>
<h2>Brontë trail</h2><br>
<p>There is a nature trail called the Brontë Trail starting from Haworth and running over the moors to the waterfall. Continuing on, Top Withens can be reached within the same walk. This is a ruined farmhouse said to have been the inspiration for Wuthering Heights house in the Brontë novel.</p><br>
<p>The Daxue Range or Daxue Mountains are a great mountain range in the western part of Sichuan province in Southwest China. It is part of the Hengduan Mountains, a complicated system of mountain ranges of western Sichuan, which itself is adjacent to the eastern edge of the Tibetan Plateau.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Daxue Mountain Range runs for several hundred kilometers in a general north-south direction, mostly within Sichuan&#39;s Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture.</p><br>
<p>The Daxue Range marks a transitional zone between the arid Tibetan Plateau and the wetter Sichuan Basin.</p><br>
<p>It separates the basins of the Yalong River (to the west) and the Dadu River (to the east). Both rivers flow in the general southern direction, and are tributaries of the Yangtze.</p><br>
<p>The tallest peak of the range, the Gongga Shan (Minya Konka), measures 7,556 meters in height. It is located in the southern part of the range.</p><br>
<p>To the east and south of the Gongga Shan, the Daxue Mountains are adjacent to the smaller Daxiangling and Xiaoxiangling ranges, which, however, are usually considered by cartographers as separate ranges.</p><br>
<p>Kennecott, also known as Kennicott and Kennecott Mines, is an abandoned mining camp in the Valdez-Cordova Census Area in the USA state of Alaska that was the center of activity for several copper mines. It is located beside the Kennicott Glacier, northeast of Valdez, inside Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve. The camp and mines are now a National Historic Landmark District administered by the National Park Service.</p><br>
<p>It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1986.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In the summer of 1900, two prospectors, "Tarantula" Jack Smith and Clarence L. Warner, a group of prospectors associated with the McClellan party, spotted "a green patch far above them in an improbable location for a grass-green meadow." The green turned out to be malachite, located with chalcocite (aka "copper glance"), and the location of the Bonanza claim. A few days later, Arthur Coe Spencer, USA Geological Survey geologist independently found chalcocite at the same location.</p><br>
<p>Stephen Birch, a mining engineer just out of school, was in Alaska looking for investment opportunities in minerals. He had the financial backing of the Havemeyer Family, and another investor named James Ralph, from his days in New York. Birch spent the winter of 1901-1902 acquiring the "McClellan group&#39;s interests" for the Alaska Copper Company of Birch, Havemeyer, Ralph and Schultz, later to become the Alaska Copper and Coal Company. In the summer of 1901, he visited the property and "spent months mapping and sampling." He confirmed the Bonanza was, at the time, the richest known concentration of copper in the world.</p><br>
<p>By 1905, Birch had successfully defended the legal challenges to his property and he began the search for capital to develop the area. On 28 June 1906, he entered into "an amalgamation" with the Daniel Guggenheim and J.P. Morgan & Co., known as the Alaska Syndicate, eventually securing over $30 million. The capital was to be used for constructing a railway, a steamship line, and development of the mines. In Nov. 1906, the Alaska Syndicate bought a 40 percent interest in the Bonanza Mine from the Alaska Copper and Coal Company and a 46.2 percent interest in the railroad plans of John Rosene&#39;s Northwestern Commercial Company.</p><br>
<p>Political battles over the mining and subsequent railroad were fought in the office of USA President Theodore Roosevelt between conservationists and those having a financial interest in the copper.</p><br>
<p>The Alaska Syndicate&#39;s traded its Wrangell Mountains Mines assets for shares in the Kennecott Copper Corporation, a "new public company" formed on 29 April 1915. A similar transaction followed with the CR&NW railway and the Alaska Steamship Company. Birch was the managing partner for the Alaska operation.</p><br>
<p>Kennecott Mines was named after the Kennicott Glacier in the valley below. The geologist Oscar Rohn named the glacier after Robert Kennicott during the 1899 US Army Abercrombie Survey. A "clerical error" resulted in the substitution of an "e" for the "i", supposedly by Stephen Birch himself.</p><br>
<p>Kennecott had five mines: Bonanza, Jumbo, Mother Lode, Erie and Glacier. Glacier, which is really an ore extension of the Bonanza, was an open-pit mine and was only mined during the summer. Bonanza and Jumbo were on Bonanza Ridge about 3 mi from Kennecott. The Mother Lode mine was located on the east side of the ridge from Kennecott. The Bonanza, Jumbo, Mother Lode and Erie mines were connected by tunnels. The Erie mine was perched on the northwest end of Bonanza Ridge overlooking Root Glacier about 3.7 mi up a glacial trail from Kennecott. Ore was hoisted to Kennecott via the trams which head-ended at Bonanza and Jumbo. From Kennecott the ore was hauled mostly in 140-pound sacks on steel flat cars to Cordova, 196 rail miles away on the Copper River and Northwestern Railway (CRNW).</p><br>
<p>In 1911 the first shipment of ore by train transpired. Before completion, the steamship Chittyna carried ore to the Abercrombie landing by Miles Glacier. Initial ore shipments contained "72 percent copper and 18 oz. of silver per ton."</p><br>
<p>In 1916, the peak year for production, the mines produced copper ore valued at $32.4 million.</p><br>
<p>In 1925 a Kennecott geologist predicted that the end of the high-grade ore bodies was in sight. The highest grades of ore were largely depleted by the early 1930s. The Glacier Mine closed in 1929. The Mother Lode was next, closing at the end of July 1938. The final three, Erie, Jumbo and Bonanza, closed that September. The last train left Kennecott on November 10, 1938, leaving it a ghost town.</p><br>
<p>From 1909 until 1938, except when it closed temporarily in 1932, Kennecott mines "produced over 4.6 million tons of ore that contained 1.183 billion pounds of copper mainly from three ore bodies: Bonanza, Jumbo and Mother Lode."</p><br>
<p>In 1938, Ernest Gruening proposed Kennecott be preserved as a National Park. A recommendation to President Franklin D. Roosevelt on 18 Jan. 1940 for the establishment of the Kennecott National Monument went nowhere. However, 2 Dec. 1980 saw the establishment of the Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve.</p><br>
<p>From 1939 until the mid-1950s, Kennecott was deserted except for a family of three who served as the watchmen until about 1952. In the late 1960s, an attempt was made to reprocess the tailings and to transport the ore in aircraft. The cost of doing so made the idea unprofitable. Around the same time, the company with land rights ordered the destruction of the town to rid them of liability for potential accidents. A few structures were destroyed, but the job was never finished and most of the town was left standing. Visitors and nearby residents have stripped many of the small items and artifacts. Some have since been returned and are held in various archives.</p><br>
<p>KCC sent a field party under the geologist Les Moon in 1955. They agreed with the 1938 conclusion, "no copper resource of a size and grade sufficient to interest KCC remained." The mill remains however.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Copper ore was discovered in a lode on Chief Nikolai&#39;s house at the mouth of Dan Creek in July 1899. The geological formations in the area were described and identified by a USGS geologist by the name of Oscar Rohn in 1899. This original copper find became the basis of the Nikolai Mine in 1900. Simultaneously, placer gold was discovered on the Dan and Young Creeks. The Bonanza ore body was discovered in Aug. 1900 by Warner and Smith. Almost simultaneously, another USGS geologist named Arthur Spencer, came across the ore when mapping the area with Frank Schrader. In 1901, the Dan Creek was staked by C.L. Warner and "Dan" L. Kain. Gold was found on Chititu Creek in April 1902 by Frank Kernan and Charles Koppus.</p><br>
<p>Besides placer deposits, copper is found as polymetallic replacement deposits in the fault planes, fractures and joints of the Triassic Nikolai greenstone, which consists of basaltic lava flows, and in the base of the Upper Triassic Chitistone limestone. Minerals include chalcocite, bornite and chalcopyrite, with associated malachite, azurite and cuprite. Native copper can also be found in the greestone.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>In the 1980s, Kennecott became a popular tourist destination, as people came to see the old mines and buildings. However, the town of Kennecott was never repopulated. Residents involved in the tourism industry often lived in nearby McCarthy or on private land in the surrounding area. The area was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1986 and the National Park Service acquired much of the land within the Kennecott Mill Town in 1998. The National Park Service is currently stabilizing and rehabilitating many of the mill and town buildings. Some of the structures, as well as surrounding lands, remain under private ownership. Tours of the mill town are available three times a day.</p><br>
<p>Popular tourist activities while visiting Kennecott include glacier hiking, ice climbing, and touring the abandoned mill. Visitors may also hike to the abandoned Bonanza, Jumbo and Erie mines, all of which are strenuous full-day hikes, with Erie Mine being a somewhat terrifying scramble along cliffs overlooking the Stairway Icefall. Local guide services offer all of these hikes if one would like some route-finding assistance.</p><br>
<h2>Accessibility</h2><br>
<p>Kennecott is now accessible by air (McCarthy has a 3,500 foot meter gravel runway) or by driving on the Edgerton Highway to the McCarthy Road, an unimproved gravel road. The McCarthy Road ends at the Kennicott River and a footbridge is available for pedestrian traffic to McCarthy. From McCarthy, it is 4.5 mi to Kennecott, and shuttles are available.</p><br>
<p>The Copper River and Northwestern Railway, CR&NW, consisted of two rail lines, the Copper River line and the Northwestern line. Michael James Heney had secured the right-of-way up the Copper River in 1904. He started building the railway from Cordova, Alaska in 1906. The town of Cordova, Alaska, was actually named by Heney on March 13, 1906, based on the original name given by Salvador Fidalgo. Both these railroads were abandoned and little remains of them. Only a 0-4-0 locomotive, "Ole", located near Goose City on a siding of the Alaska Anthracite Railroad Company is the only equipment left. Many of the holdings of the CR&NW railroad including Ole were acquired for this railroad by Mr. Clark Davis and his partners in 1908 after a major storm destroyed the Katalla area facilities in 1907. The town of Cordova would like to move Ole to a memorial site in Cordova to celebrate its role in these railroads. Ole was declared eligible for the National Register of Historic Places in 1988.</p><br>
<p>In 1905 Myron K. Rodgers received a four-year contract to assist the Guggenheim family with their interests in Alaska. This work consisted of establishing coal claims in the Bering River coal field and building a railroad (Northwestern) to serve them. Myron Rodgers employed his brother Wesley P. Rodgers to carry out the surveys in 1906 and to build the railroad in 1907. The railroad started at Palm Point and extended to the northeast past the town of Katalla towards the coal fields. At Palm Point a loading pier was built into the bay and a branch line for the Copper River railroad was extended west to connect to it. The 1907 winter storm destroyed all of these facilities, including the engine house and support base.</p><br>
<p>By Oct. 1906, Heney had retired and decided to sell his Copper River right-of-way to the Alaska Syndicate that consisted of M. Guggenheim & Sons and J.P. Morgan & Co. However, he returned to work for Daniel Guggenheim on the Copper River railway in 1907 after the destruction of the winter storm. Guggenheim had decided Cordova was a better starting point.</p><br>
<p>The Alaska Syndicate included investment by J.P. Morgan. He had earlier bought John Rosene&#39;s Northwestern Commercial Company, an empire of mercantile companies, shipping interests, and railroad. The syndicate started construction from Cordova, the Bonanza mine site at Kennecott, and at a point midway where the Nizina River merged with the Copper River. Challenges included bridging the Kuskulana River canyon and the Copper River with the Million Dollar Bridge. "The completion of the Million Dollar Bridge in the summer of 1910 effectively guaranteed the success of the rail project and the shipment of the first load of Kennecott ore in early 1911."</p><br>
<p>Heney had traveled to New York in 1909 to meet with Daniel Guggenheim and other board members about the railroad progress. On his return journey, he departed Seattle on 23 Aug. 1909 aboard the steamship Ohio. On 25 Aug., the Ohio struck an uncharted rock and sank. Heney finally made it to Cordova on 18 Sept. On 30 Nov. 1909 the railroad reached the Tiekel River, completing the first phase of the contract. Heney made another trip to New York to turn over that portion of the railroad to the Katalla Company. On the return trip he spent the winter in Seattle. His health failing, Heney finally succumbed to pulmonary tuberculosis on 4 Oct. 1910.</p><br>
<p>The last spike in the construction, a "copper spike", was driven on 29 March 1911, by Chief Engineer E. C. Hawkins and Superintendent Samuel Murchison at Kennicott.</p><br>
<p>The cost of the railway at $25 million was justified because the mines produced $200 million worth of copper ore during their operation of which at least 50 percent was profit. There were 129 bridges constructed between Cordova and Chitina.</p><br>
<p>As far as is known, the CR&NW was the only railway in Alaska to employ wigwags at railroad crossings.</p><br>
<p>The good ore in the mines ran out and the last train ran on 11 Nov. 1938. In 1941, the Kennecott Corporation donated the railroad right-of-way to the United States "for use as a public highway". In 1953 conversion was started. The Alaska Dept. of Highways had extended the Copper River Highway to Mile 59, from Cordova to the Million Dollar Bridge, by 1964. However, the damage to 28 bridges after the Good Friday earthquake delayed further construction. By 1972 the highway extended to Mile 72 and south 20 miles from Chitina.</p><br>
<p>The bridge has recently (2005) been repaired. The roadbed from Chitina to McCarthy now forms the McCarthy Road.</p><br>
<p>The railroads nickname was "Cant Run and Never Will".</p><br>
<h2>Historic designations</h2><br>
<p>On April 24, 1973, the railway remains, comprising 11 trestles, an abandoned native village with a Russian post and the Tiekel Station, were added as a historic district to the National Register of Historic Places. The railway&#39;s bunkhouse and messhouse at Chitina were also added to the register on December 5, 2002. The 0-4-0 tank engine, Number 3, "Ole", was declared eligible for the National Register in 1988.</p><br>
<h2>Popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The Iron Trail by Rex Beach was first published in 1912 as a "fictional version of the building of the Copper River and Northwestern Railroad."</p><br>
<p>The Willard InterContinental Washington is a historic luxury Beaux-Arts hotel located at 1401 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Washington, D.C. Among its facilities are numerous luxurious guest rooms, several restaurants, the famed Round Robin Bar, the Peacock Alley series of luxury shops, and voluminous function rooms. Owned by InterContinental Hotels & Resorts, it is two blocks east of the White House, and two blocks west of the Metro Center station of the Washington Metro.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The first structures to be built at 1401 Pennsylvania Avenue NW were six small houses constructed by Colonel John Tayloe III in 1816. Tayloe leased the six buildings to Joshua Tennison, who named them Tennisons Hotel. The structures served as a hotel for the next three decades, the leaseholder and name changing several times: Williamsons Mansion Hotel, Fullers American House, and the City Hotel.</p><br>
<p>The Willard Hotel was formally founded by Henry Willard when he leased the six buildings in 1847, combined them into a single structure, and enlarged it into a four-story hotel he renamed the Willard Hotel. Willard purchased the hotel property from Benjamin Tayloe in 1864, but a dispute over the purchase price and the form of payment (paper currency or gold coin) led to a major equity lawsuit which ended up in the Supreme Court of the United States. The Supreme Court split the difference in Willard v. Tayloe. 75 USA 557 (1869): The purchase price would remain the same, but Willard must pay in gold coin (which had not depreciated in value the way paper currency had).</p><br>
<p>The present 12-story structure, designed by famed hotel architect Henry Janeway Hardenbergh, opened in 1901. It suffered a major fire in 1922 which caused $250,000 (equivalent to $ as of ), in damages. Among those who had to be evacuated from the hotel were Vice President Calvin Coolidge, several USA senators, composer John Philip Sousa, motion picture producer Adolph Zukor, newspaper publisher Harry Chandler, and numerous other media, corporate, and political leaders who were present for the annual Gridiron Dinner. For many years the Willard was the only hotel from which one could easily visit all of downtown Washington, and consequently it has housed many dignitaries during its history.</p><br>
<p>The Willard family sold its share of the hotel in 1946, and due to mismanagement and the severe decline of the area, the hotel closed in 1968. The building sat vacant for years, and numerous plans were floated for its demolition. It eventually fell into a semi-public receivership and was sold to the Pennsylvania Avenue Development Corporation. They held a competition to rehabilitate the property and ultimately awarded it to the Oliver Carr Company and Golding Associates. The two partners then brought in the InterContinental Hotels Group to be a part owner and operator of the hotel. The Willard was subsequently restored to its turn-of-the-century elegance and an office-building contingent was added. The hotel was thus re-opened amid great celebration on August 20, 1986, which was attended by several USA Supreme Court justices and USA senators. In the late 1990s, the hotel once again underwent significant restoration.</p><br>
<h2>Notable guests</h2><br>
<p>The first group of three Japanese ambassadors to the United States stayed at the Willard with seventy-four other delegates in 1860, where they observed that their hotel room was more luxurious than the USA Secretary of State&#39;s house. It was the first time an official Japanese delegation traveled to a foreign destination, and many tourists and journalists gathered to see the sword-carrying Japanese.</p><br>
<p>From February 4 to February 27, 1861, the Peace Congress, featuring delegates from 21 of the 34 states, met at the Willard in a last-ditch attempt to avert the Civil War. A plaque from the Virginia Civil War Commission, located on the Pennsylvania Ave. side of the hotel, commemorates this courageous effort. Later that year, upon hearing a Union regiment singing "John Brown&#39;s Body" as they marched beneath her window, Julia Ward Howe wrote the lyrics to "The Battle Hymn of the Republic" while staying at the hotel in November 1861.</p><br>
<p>On February 23, 1861, amid several assassination threats, detective Allan Pinkerton smuggled Abraham Lincoln into the Willard; there Lincoln lived until his inauguration on March 4, holding meetings in the lobby and carrying on business from his room.</p><br>
<p>On March 27, 1874, the Northern and Southern Orders of Chi Phi met at the Willard to unite as the Chi Phi Fraternity.</p><br>
<p>Many United States presidents have frequented the Willard, and every president since Franklin Pierce has either slept in or attended an event at the hotel at least once; the hotel hence is also known as "the residence of presidents." It was the habit of Ulysses S. Grant to drink whiskey and smoke a cigar while relaxing in the lobby. Folklore (promoted by the hotel) holds that this is the origin of the term "lobbying," as Grant was often approached by those seeking favors. However, this is probably false, as Websters Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary dates the verb "to lobby" to 1837. Plans for Woodrow Wilsons League of Nations took shape when he held meetings of the League to Enforce Peace in the hotel&#39;s lobby in 1916. Six sitting Vice-Presidents have lived in the Willard. Millard Fillmore and Thomas A. Hendricks, during his brief time in office, lived in the old Willard; and then four successive Vice-Presidents, James S. Sherman, Thomas R. Marshall, Calvin Coolidge and finally Charles Dawes all lived in the current building for at least part of their vice-presidency. Fillmore and Coolidge continued in the Willard, even after becoming president, to allow the first family time to move out of the White House.</p><br>
<p>Several hundred officers, many of them combat veterans of World War I, first gathered with the General of the Armies, John J. "Blackjack" Pershing, at the Willard Hotel on October 2, 1922, and formally established the Reserve Officers Association (ROA) as an organization.</p><br>
<p>The first recorded meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research was convened at the Willard on May 7, 1907.</p><br>
<p>Martin Luther King, Jr., wrote his famous "I Have a Dream" speech in his hotel room at the Willard in 1963 in the days before his March on Washington.</p><br>
<p>On September 23, 1987, it was reported that Bob Fosse collapsed in his room at the Willard and later died. It was subsequently learned that he actually died at George Washington University Hospital.</p><br>
<p>Among the Willard&#39;s many other famous guests are P. T. Barnum, Mark Twain, Walt Whitman, General Tom Thumb, Samuel Morse, the Duke of Windsor, Harry Houdini, Gypsy Rose Lee, Gloria Swanson, Emily Dickinson, Jenny Lind, Charles Dickens, Bert Bell, Joe Paterno, and Jim Sweeney.</p><br>
<p>Steven Spielberg shot the finale of his film Minority Report at the hotel in the summer of 2001. He filmed with Tom Cruise and Max von Sydow in the Willard Room, Peacock Alley and the kitchen. A replica of the terraced roof of the office building, seen in the photo above, was constructed on a soundstage for the final scene.</p><br>
<p>On February 22, 2012, Australian Foreign Minister Kevin Rudd gave a dramatic resignation speech in the hotel&#39;s Douglas Room.</p><br>
<h2>Rating</h2><br>
<p>The AAA gave the hotel four diamonds out of five in 1986. The hotel has maintained that rating every year, and received four diamonds again for 2016. Forbes Travel Guide (formerly known as Mobil Guide) declined to give the hotel either four or five stars in 2016, but did add it to its list of "recommended" properties.</p><br>
<p>Maeser Elementary was an elementary school in Provo, Utah. It was named after Karl G. Maeser. Built in 1898, it is the oldest school building in Provo, Utah. The school was designed by architect Richard C. Watkins, who also designed the Provo Third Ward Chapel and Amusement Hall, The Knight Block Building, and the Thomas N. Taylor Mansion.</p><br>
<h2>Karl G. Maeser</h2><br>
<p>Karl G. Maeser was born in Germany. Karl Maeser and his wife Anna Therese Meith were baptized into the LDS Church in 1855, and left shortly thereafter for Utah. Detained on their journey due to their decision to serve various missions for the church, the Maesers did not arrive in Utah until 1860.</p><br>
<p>In Utah, Maeser operated various schools and served other missions until the year 1876, where he was called to establish an academy in the name of the church. The academy he established was known as the Brigham Young Academy, now Brigham Young University. Karl G. Maeser served as director, principal, and instructor of the academy. Heber J. Grant, a president of the LDS church stated, "Some of our outstanding men... attribute largely to the force of character of Brother Maeser and the impression made upon them while under his influence their successes in life."</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The present site of Provo was settled by members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) in 1849 when Fort Utah was built near the Provo River. The Mormons, fleeing from persecution in Nauvoo, Illinois, headed west under the direction of Brigham Young and established themselves in the Great Salt Lake area in Utah. Provo was the first settlement in Utah Valley and was part of a plan to establish a chain of communities extending from Salt Lake City. The Mormon communities were planned according to a grid system set forth by their leaders.</p><br>
<p>The first schools in Provo were sometimes held in public buildings and private residences. In the year 1851, the Provo City council gained power to establish, support and regulate common schools, and in 1853 property taxes were approved for building schools. Before the 1870s in Provo, school buildings were small adobe structures. Then in 1875 one united school district was formed and an era of better buildings and schools began. In 1898 the Board of Education approved plans for the construction of Maeser Elementary. The school was dedicated November 9, 1898 with Karl G. Maeser as guest of honor.</p><br>
<p>It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1998, with note that it was then the oldest public school in Provo that was still in use, and that it "is one of the best-preserved examples of the work of Utah architect Richard Watkins".</p><br>
<h2>Today</h2><br>
<p>Maeser Schools enrollment dwindled until the decision was made to close its doors in 2001. The future of the historic Maeser School has become what Mayor Lewis K. Billings called "The second biggest building controversy in the history of Provo." The Maeser School was redeveloped by the Provo City Housing Authority as senior housing. Now known as Maeser School Apartments, the redevelopment project has won several awards, including a HGTV Historic Preservation grant, a Readers Choice award from Affordable Housing Finance, and a "Best in State" award for City planning.</p><br>
<p>The Daily Herald reported: "Somehow, it seems appropriate that historic Maeser School long sheltered young children under its roof and now houses senior residents. After all, it is the very old who most often stop to recall the memories and feelings of how it was to be very young. Perhaps even some elderly folks who attended Maeser School as children will find a welcome reunion and home within its walls in the coming years."</p><br>
<p>The Henry Ford  is a large indoor and outdoor history museum complex and a National Historic Landmark in the Detroit suburb of Dearborn, Michigan, United States. The museum collection contains the presidential limousine of John F. Kennedy, Abraham Lincolns chair from Fords Theatre, Thomas Edisons laboratory, the Wright Brothers bicycle shop, the Rosa Parks bus, and many more historical exhibits. It is the largest indoor-outdoor museum complex in the United States and is visited by 1.6 million people each year.</p><br>
<h2>Museum background</h2><br>
<p>Named for its founder, the automobile industrialist Henry Ford, and based on his efforts to preserve items of historical interest and portray the Industrial Revolution, the property houses homes, machinery, exhibits, and Americana of historically significant items as well as common memorabilia, both of which help to capture the history of life in early America. It is one of the largest such collections in the nation.</p><br>
<p>Henry Ford said of his museum:</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Architect Robert O. Derrick designed the museum with a 523,000 ft&sup2; exhibit hall that extends 400 ft behind the main façade. The façade spans 800 ft and incorporates three structures from Independence National Historical Park—Old City Hall; Independence Hall and Congress Hall.</p><br>
<p>The Edison Institute was dedicated by President Herbert Hoover to Ford&#39;s longtime friend Thomas Edison on October 21, 1929 &ndash; the 50th anniversary of the first successful incandescent light bulb. The attendees included Marie Curie, George Eastman, John D. Rockefeller, Will Rogers, Orville Wright, and about 250 others. The dedication was broadcast on radio with listeners encouraged to turn off their electric lights until the switch was flipped at the Museum.</p><br>
<p>The Edison Institute was, at first, a private site for educational purposes only, but after numerous inquiries about the complex, it was opened as a museum to the general public on June 22, 1933. It was originally composed of the Henry Ford Museum, Greenfield Village, and the Greenfield Village Schools (an experimental learning facility). Initially, Greenfield Village and the Henry Ford Museum were owned by the Ford Motor Company, which is currently a sponsor of the school and cooperates with the Henry Ford to provide the Ford Rouge Factory Tour. The Henry Ford is sited between the Ford Dearborn Development Center and several Ford engineering buildings with which it shares the same style gates and brick fences.</p><br>
<p>In 1970, the museum purchased what it believed to be a 17th-century Brewster Chair, created for one of the Pilgrim settlers in the Plymouth Colony, for $9,000. In September 1977, the chair was determined to be a modern forgery created in 1969 by Rhode Island sculptor Armand LaMontagne. The museum retains the piece as an educational tool on forgeries.</p><br>
<p>In the early 2000s, the museum added an auditorium to the building&#39;s south corner. This housed an IMAX theater until January 2016 when museum management decided to change formats for the facility to better fit with its mission. The renovated theater reopened in April of that year.</p><br>
<h2>Henry Ford Museum of American Innovation</h2><br>
<p>The Henry Ford Museum of American Innovation began as Henry Ford&#39;s personal collection of historic objects, which he began collecting as far back as 1906. Today, the 12 acre (49,000 m²) site is primarily a collection of antique machinery, pop culture items, automobiles, locomotives, aircraft, and other items:</p><br>
<p>The museum features a 4K digital projection theater, which shows scientific, natural, or historical documentaries, as well as major feature films.</p><br>
<p>An Oscar Mayer Wienermobile</p><br>
<p>The 1961 Lincoln Continental, SS-100-X that President John F. Kennedy was riding in when he was assassinated.</p><br>
<p>The rocking chair from Ford&#39;s Theatre in which President Abraham Lincoln was sitting when he was shot.</p><br>
<p>George Washington&#39;s camp bed.</p><br>
<p>A collection of several fine 17th- and 18th-century violins including a Stradivarius.</p><br>
<p>Thomas Edison&#39;s alleged last breath in a sealed tube.</p><br>
<p>Buckminster Fuller&#39;s prototype Dymaxion house.</p><br>
<p>The bus on which Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to give up her seat, leading to the Montgomery Bus Boycott.</p><br>
<p>Igor Sikorsky&#39;s prototype helicopter.</p><br>
<p>Fokker Trimotor airplane that flew the first flight over the North Pole.</p><br>
<p>Bill Elliott&#39;s record-breaking race car clocking in at over 212 MPH at Talladega in 1987</p><br>
<p>Fairbottom Bobs, the Newcomen engine</p><br>
<p>A steam engine from Cobb&#39;s Engine House in England.</p><br>
<p>A working fragment of the original Holiday Inn "Great Sign"</p><br>
<p>A Chesapeake & Ohio Railway 2-6-6-6 "Allegheny"-class steam locomotive built by Lima Locomotive Works in Lima, Ohio. The Allegheny was the most powerful steam locomotive ever built.</p><br>
<p>Behind the scenes, the Benson Ford Research Center uses the resources of The Henry Ford, especially the photographic, manuscript and archival material which is rarely displayed, to allow visitors to gain a deeper understanding of American people, places, events, and things. The Research Center also contains the Ford Motor Archives.</p><br>
<p>To commemorate the 100th anniversary of the sinking of the RMS Titanic, the Henry Ford Museum exhibited a vast array of artifacts and media documenting the Titanics voyage and demise. The exhibit was hosted from 31 March to 30 September 2012.</p><br>
<h2>Henry Ford Museum of American Innovation Gallery</h2><br>
<h3>Airplane Exhibits</h3><br>
<h3>Agriculture Exhibits</h3><br>
<h3>Automobile Exhibits</h3><br>
<h3>Presidential Limousines</h3><br>
<h3>Made In America Exhibits</h3><br>
<h2>Greenfield Village</h2><br>
<p>Greenfield Village, the outdoor living history museum section of the Henry Ford complex, was (along with the adjacent Henry Ford Museum) dedicated in 1929 and opened to the public in June 1933. It was the first outdoor museum of its type in the nation, and served as a model for subsequent outdoor museums. Patrons enter at the gate, passing by the Josephine Ford Memorial Fountain and Benson Ford Research Center. Nearly one hundred historical buildings were moved to the property from their original locations and arranged in a "village" setting. The museum&#39;s intent is to show how Americans lived and worked since the founding of the country. The Village includes buildings from the 17th century to the present, many of which are staffed by costumed interpreters who conduct period tasks like farming, sewing and cooking. A collection of craft buildings such as pottery, glass-blowing, and tin shops provide demonstrations while producing materials used in the Village and for sale. Greenfield Village has 240 acres (970,000 m²) of land of which only 90 acres (360,000 m²) are used for the attraction, the rest being forest, river and extra pasture for the sheep and horses.</p><br>
<p>Village homes and buildings include:</p><br>
<p>Noah Webster&#39;s Connecticut home, which served as a dormitory for Yale students from 1918 to 1936, when it was obtained by Henry Ford and moved to Greenfield Village where it was restored.</p><br>
<p>The Wright brothers&#39; bicycle shop and home, which was bought and moved by Henry Ford in 1937 from Dayton, Ohio.</p><br>
<p>A replica of Thomas Edison&#39;s Menlo Park laboratory complex from New Jersey. Its reconstruction started in 1928. The buildings were laid out according to exact foundation measurements from the original site. It was furnished with original or faithful duplicates, all placed as they were originally.</p><br>
<p>Henry Fords birthplace, which was moved from Greenfield and Ford roads in 1944. Henry Ford had it furnished exactly as it was during his mothers time.</p><br>
<p>Henry Ford&#39;s prototype garage where he built the Ford Quadricycle.</p><br>
<p>Harvey Firestone family farm from Columbiana, Ohio, which was given to the Village by Harveys two remaining sons in 1983 to perpetuate their fathers memory. It took over two years for the disassembling and rebuilding process and has been operated as a working sheep farm since 1985.</p><br>
<p>The Logan County, Illinois courthouse where Abraham Lincoln practiced law.</p><br>
<p>William Holmes McGuffey&#39;s birthplace.</p><br>
<p>Luther Burbank&#39;s office.</p><br>
<p>J.R. Jones General Store was built circa 1857 in Waterford Village, Michigan. It was removed to Greenfield Village in 1927 after being purchased by Henry Ford from its then-owner August V. Jacober for $700 and the agreement to rebuild a new store on its Waterford site. It was the first structure to arrive at the Greenfield Village site. The general store was placed in its permanent location facing the village green in the spring of 1929.</p><br>
<p>Ackley Covered Bridge, a 75&#39; wooden covered bridge, built in 1832 over Enlow Fork along the Greene - Washington County line in Southwestern Pennsylvania and removed to the village in 1937.</p><br>
<p>Cape Cod Windmill, also known as the Farris mill, is considered one of the oldest in America. It was originally built in 1633 on the north side of Cape Cod. It was moved several times around Cape Cod until it was gifted to Henry Ford from the Ford Dealers Association, and installed in Greenfield Village in 1936.</p><br>
<p>In 1935, a structure was added to the park and was identified as the home of Stephen Foster. The structure was identified by historians of the time as being authentic and was then deconstructed and moved "piece by piece" from Lawrenceville, Pennsylvania (now Pittsburgh) to Greenfield Village, Michigan. Foster&#39;s niece insisted that it was not his birthplace and in 1953, the claim was withdrawn.</p><br>
<p>There are various modes of historic transportation in the Village providing rides for visitors, which utilize authentic Ford Model Ts, a 1931 Ford Model AA bus (one of about 15 known to exist), horse-drawn omnibuses, and trains pulled by steam locomotives.</p><br>
<h3>Weiser Railroad</h3><br>
<p>The rail line on which the steam locomotives in Greenfield Village presently run originally consisted of a simple straight stretch of track along the northern edge of the museum property, and has been present ever since Greenfield Village was dedicated in 1929. The rail line, now named the Weiser Railroad, was later expanded into a continuous loop around the perimeter of the museum property, which was completed in stages between 1971 and 1972. This passenger line is 2 mi long and has four stations. All of the railroad&#39;s stations consist solely of single side platforms except for the station in the Railroad Junction section, which also includes the relocated Smiths Creek Depot building originally built for the Grand Trunk Railway in 1858. In addition, the line utilizes a modern replica of a Detroit, Toledo & Milwaukee Railroad (DT&M) roundhouse built in 1884. At the time it was opened to the public in 2000, the new DT&M Roundhouse replica was one of only seven working roundhouses open to the public in the United States.</p><br>
<p>The railroad, unusual for a heritage railroad built purposely for tourism, has a direct connection to the United States National Railroad Network. The line to which it connects is a section of the Michigan Line owned by MDOT and is used by Amtraks Wolverine service, which runs between Chicago, Illinois and Pontiac, Michigan. In the past, Amtraks Greenfield Village station provided direct access to Greenfield Village near the Weiser Railroad&#39;s Smiths Creek Depot for reserved tour groups of twenty or more. It was consolidated in December 2014 with the new John D. Dingell Transit Center. The new transit center is adjacent to the Henry Ford museum complex and has a gate allowing access to the complex via a short walk.</p><br>
<h4>Steam locomotives</h4><br>
<p>The Weiser Railroad presently has three historic steam locomotives in operation. Their details are listed in the table below.</p><br>
<h2>Greenfield Village Gallery</h2><br>
<h3>Thomas Edison Exhibits</h3><br>
<h3>Wright Brothers Exhibits</h3><br>
<h2>Signature Events</h2><br>
<h3>Civil War Remembrance</h3><br>
<p>Each year the Village honors the sacrifices and achievements of those who bravely fought in the American Civil War. The Civil War Remembrance event takes place Memorial Day weekend (Sat-Mon) every year. An estimated 750,000 people died during the Civil War. The Civil War Remembrance is a weekend event, which includes hundreds of Union and Confederate reenactors, musicians and historic presenters. This event features more than 400 Civil War reenactors who spend the entire weekend in the Village. Greenfield Village provides many opportunities in order to learn about the Civil War: exhibits, presentations, battle reenactments, concerts, short plays, hands-on activities and Q&A with historians.</p><br>
<h3>Motor Muster</h3><br>
<p>Motor Muster is one of two car shows that take place annually in Greenfield Village. Motor Muster is traditionally held on Father&#39;s Day weekend. This event currently features cars built from 1932–1976, and features between 600–800 cars. Special attractions include car judging, and Pass in Review in which experts discuss highlights of the passing cars.</p><br>
<h3>Summer Camp</h3><br>
<p>Every summer the Henry Ford has a Summer Camp. It takes place inside Greenfield Village and the Henry Ford Museum between June and August. It is for children in grades 2-9. Each grade level has a different theme and children who participate in the Summer Camp have the opportunity to look at both the Henry Ford Museum of American Innovation and Greenfield Village from different perspectives. Children participate in activities such as: apprenticeships, canoeing, glass blowing and other age-dependent activities.</p><br>
<h3>World Tournament of Historic Base Ball</h3><br>
<p>The World Tournament of Historical Base Ball takes place every year in August. Guests get to take a step back in time to 1867 as vintage base ball clubs from around the country compete by the game’s early rules in a two-day exposition of historic base ball. The clubs engage in two days of throwing, batting and competition. The event is included in Greenfield Village admission.</p><br>
<h3>Salute to America</h3><br>
<p>For four nights around Independence Day, the Detroit Symphony Orchestra performs a patriotic concert on Walnut Grove in the Village. Attendance ranges from 5000–9500 per evening.</p><br>
<h3>Ragtime Street Fair</h3><br>
<p>This weekend event in July was first presented in 2007 and ran annually through 2015. Ragtime Street Fair featured dozens of live performers, including the River Raisin Ragtime Revue, "Perfessor" Bill Edwards, Mike Montgomery, Nan Bostick, Taslimah Bey, John Remmers, and Tartarsauce Traditional Jazz Band, who celebrated the Ragtime era (ca. 1900-1917). The event also featured silent movies, phonograph demonstrations, a cake walk, a cutting contest, and a musical revue in Town Hall as well as the 1912 presidential campaign of Theodore Roosevelt. Instruction in the ragtime one-step was provided free of charge at this event.</p><br>
<h3>Old Car Festival</h3><br>
<p>The Old Car Festival takes place every year in September. The Old Car Festival has been held on the first weekend after Labor Day since 1955. The festival takes over the streets and grounds of Greenfield Village with the sights, sounds, and smells of hundreds of authentic vehicles from the 1890s through 1932. This event features 500-700 cars. Special events include car judging, Pass in Review, the gaslight tour, and car races on the Walnut Grove field. Guests can take a self-guided tour of the exposition and talk to the owners of the treasured vehicles. Visitors can watch a Model T be assembled in just minutes, attend presentations, and hear experts share information about the vintage vehicles.</p><br>
<h3>Hallowe'en in Greenfield Village</h3><br>
<p>The Village&#39;s Halloween celebration features decorations, a headless horseman, witches, other costumed characters, treats and activities for visitors. It is held Friday, Saturday and Sunday evenings in October.</p><br>
<h3>Holiday Nights</h3><br>
<p>The Christmas season has traditionally been very popular in Greenfield Village. Many buildings feature period decorations and evening tours are conducted along candle-lit paths. Visitors can view live entertainment and costumed presenters or ride in a horse-drawn carriage or Model T.</p><br>
<h2>Rouge Tour</h2><br>
<p>The Ford Rouge Factory Tour is a first-hand journey behind the scenes of a modern, working automobile factory. Boarding buses at the Henry Ford Museum, visitors are taken to the River Rouge Plant and Dearborn Truck Plant, an industrial complex where Ford has built cars since the Model A that once employed 100,000 people.</p><br>
<p>In 2003, the Ford Rouge Factory, the manufacturing facility for Fords Ford F-Series truck, reopened following extensive renovations. When it reopened in 2003, as sustainable architecture (Gold LEED Building) led by noted green architect William McDonough, it also opened a new state-of-the-art visitor center highlighting the factorys sustainable aspects and educating visitors on the legacy of the historic manufacturing facility as well as the vehicle manufacturing process that takes place within the manufacturing plant. The visitor experiences, designed by award-winning experience designer Bob Rogers and the design team BRC Imagination Arts, offers two multi-screen theaters, numerous touchscreen interpretive displays and overlook the world’s largest “Green” roof, atop the factory. Visitors then walk through the working assembly plant.</p><br>
<p>Sagalassos  is an archaeological site in southwestern Turkey, about 100 km north of Antalya , and 30 km from Burdur and Isparta. The ancient ruins of Sagalassos are 7 km from Ağlasun  in the province of Burdur, on Mount Akdağ, in the Western Taurus mountains range, at an altitude of 1450–1700 metres.</p><br>
<p>In Roman Imperial times, the town was known as the "first city of Pisidia", a region in the western Taurus mountains, currently known as the Turkish Lakes Region. During the Hellenistic period it was already one of the major Pisidian towns.</p><br>
<h2>Introduction</h2><br>
<p>The urban site was laid out on various terraces at an altitude between 1400 and 1600 m. After suffering from a major earthquake in the early sixth century CE, the town managed to recover, but a cocktail of epidemics, water shortages, a general lack of security and stability, a failing economy and finally another devastating earthquake around the middle of the seventh century forced the inhabitants to abandon their town and resettle in the valley.</p><br>
<p>Large-scale excavations started in 1990 under the direction of Marc Waelkens of the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven. A large number of buildings, monuments and other archaeological remains have been exposed, documenting the monumental aspect of the Hellenistic, Roman and early Byzantine history of this town.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Human settlement in the area goes back to 8000 BCE, before the actual site was occupied. Hittite documents refer to a mountain site of Salawassa in the fourteenth century BCE and the town spread during the Phrygian and Lydian cultures. Sagalassos was part of the region of Pisidia in the western part of the Taurus Mountains. During the Persian period, Pisidia became known for its warlike factions.</p><br>
<p>Sagalassos was one of the wealthiest cities in Pisidia when Alexander the Great conquered it in 333 BCE on his way to Persia. It had a population of a few thousand. After Alexander&#39;s death, the region became part of the territories of Antigonus Monophthalmus, possibly Lysimachus of Thrace, the Seleucids of Syria and the Attalids of Pergamon. The archeological record indicates that locals rapidly adopted Hellenic culture.</p><br>
<p>The Roman Empire absorbed Pisidia after the Attalids and it became part of the province of Asia. In 39 BCE it was handed out to Galatian client king Amyntas, but after he was killed in 25 BCE Rome turned Pisidia into the province of Galatia. Under the Roman Empire, Sagalassos became the important urban center of Pisidia, particularly favoured by the Emperor Hadrian, who named it the "first city" of the province and the center of the imperial cult. Contemporary buildings have a fully Roman character.</p><br>
<p>Around 400 CE Sagalassos was fortified for defence. An earthquake devastated it in 518 and a plague circa 541-543 halved the local population. Arab raids threatened the town around 640 and after another earthquake destroyed the town in the middle of the seventh century, the site was abandoned. The populace probably resettled in the valley. Excavations have found only signs of a fortified monastery—possibly a religious community, which was destroyed in the twelfth century. Sagalassos disappeared from the records.</p><br>
<p>In the following centuries, erosion covered the ruins of Sagalassos. It was not looted to a significant extent, possibly because of its location.</p><br>
<p>Explorer Paul Lucas, who was traveling in Turkey on a mission for the court of Louis XIV of France, visited the ruins in 1706. After 1824, when Francis Vyvyan Jago Arundell (1780–1846), the British chaplain at Izmir and an antiquarian, visited the site and deciphered its name in inscriptions, Western travelers began to visit the ruins. Polish historian of art, count K. Lanckoroński produced the first map of Sagalassos. However, the city did not attract much archaeological attention until 1985, when an Anglo-Belgian team led by Stephen Mitchell began a major survey of the site.</p><br>
<h2>Modern project</h2><br>
<p>From 1990 Sagalassos, a major tourist site, has become a major excavation project led by Marc Waelkens of the Catholic University of Leuven in Belgium. The monumental city center is now exposed; four major restoration projects are (nearly) completed. The project also undertakes an intensive urban and geophysical survey, excavations in the domestic and industrial areas, and an intensive survey of the territory. The first survey documents a thousand years of occupation—from Alexander the Great to the seventh century—while the latter has established the changing settlement patterns, the vegetation history and farming practices, the landscape formation and climatic changes during the last 10,000 years.</p><br>
<p>On August 9, 2007, the press reported the discovery of a finely detailed, colossal statue of the Emperor Hadrian, which is thought to have stood 4-5m in height. The statue dates to the early part of Hadrians reign, and depicts the emperor in military garb. It was carved in sections that were fitted together with marble tenons on the site, which was a thermae, a public bath. A major earthquake sometime between the late sixth and early seventh centuries CE brought the vaulting crashing down; the statue of Hadrian was felled, coming apart along the joins of its facture. The discovery of carved marble toes drilled with dowel holes to fasten them to the hem of a long mantle suggests the possibility of finding a companion sculpture of Sabina, the emperors consort. On August 14, 2008, the head statue of Faustina the Elder, wife of Roman emperor Antoninus Pius (Hadrian&#39;s successor and adopted son) was discovered in the same site. On August 22, 2008, another colossal portrait head was found, this time of Marcus Aurelius.</p><br>
<p>In a phylogenetic study the mitochondrial DNA of 85 skeletons from Sagalassos dated to the 11th–13th century AD was compared to modern populations. The research found a significant maternal genetic signature of Balkan/Greek populations, as well as ancient Persians and populations from the Italian peninsula. Some contribution from the Levant was also detected, whereas no contribution from Central Asian population was ascertained.</p><br>
<h2>Further</h2><br>
<p>The Gallo-Roman Museum in Tongeren, Belgium hosted an exhibition of artifacts from Sagalassos under the title "Sagalassos: City of Dreams" between 29 October 2011 and 17 June 2012</p><br>
<p>Mount Kineo is a prominent geological feature located on a 1,150 acre peninsula that extends from the easterly shore of Moosehead Lake in the northern forest of Maine. With 700 ft cliffs rising straight up from the water, it is the central feature of Mount Kineo State Park, a protected area of 800 acre managed by the Maine Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Forestry.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Native Americans once traveled great distances to Mt. Kineo to acquire its rhyolite rock. The mountain is said to contain one of the largest formations of rhyolite in the world. This rhyolite is evidence of an igneous (volcanic) phase although the mountain formation also contain slate and sandstone demonstrating sedimentary and metaphoric history as well. The mechanical properties of the rhyolite on Mount Kineo exhibits the physical properties of flint and was used extensively by indigenous peoples to make arrowheads and implements and thus, has often been referred to as "Kineo flint" in literature; but this term misleads by implication that the rhyolite is a cryptocrystalline form of the mineral quartz derived from a sedimentary origin. The rhyolite is actually an igneous extrusive material implying a volcanic phase that created the unique properties of this highly sought after material. Being the country&#39;s largest known mass of this rock, once used by Indians to craft arrowheads, hatchets, chisels, etc., Indian implements made from the stone have been found in all parts of New England and even further south, it is evident that various tribes visited Mt. Kineo for centuries to obtain this material.</p><br>
<p>In 1846, Henry David Thoreau visited the Moosehead Lake region, and the mountain&#39;s geological formation, Indian relics and traditions deeply interested him.</p><br>
<p>The first Mt. Kineo House was built on the shores of Moosehead Lake in 1848, but burned in 1868. Rebuilt in 1870 and opened in 1871, the second Mt. Kineo House burned again in 1882. Designed by Arthur H. Vinal, the third Mt. Kineo House opened in 1884.</p><br>
<p>In 1911, the Maine Central Railroad purchased the resort and engaged the Hiram Ricker Hotel Company to operate it. Then the largest inland waterfront hotel in America, it had accommodations for over 500 guests. In 1933, the railroad eliminated its Kineo branch, and in 1938 sold the hotel. It burned during demolition and today the old employee house still stands next to hole # 9 of the golf course.</p><br>
<h2>Features</h2><br>
<p>The state park offers various trails around the peninsula and to the mountain peak. The park can only be reached by water. The Mount Kineo Golf Course operates the seasonal water shuttle service from the public dock in Rockwood to Mount Kineo.</p><br>
<p>Mount Kineo Golf Course is believed to be the second oldest in New England. It came under new ownership in 2009. Played on the original 1893 course, the classic lakeside layout has no sand traps, small greens, and the Kineo cliff as a backdrop for the scenic over-the-water par 3 hole #4.</p><br>
<p>Marjan is a hill on the peninsula of the city of Split, largest city of Croatia&#39;s Dalmatia region. It is covered in a dense Mediterranean pine forest and completely surrounded by the city and the sea, making it a unique sight. Originally used as a park by the citizens as early as the 3rd century, it is a favorite weekend excursion destination and a recreational center for the city. It is also the setting for numerous beaches and jogging trails as well as tennis courts and the city Zoo, all surrounded by the scenic forest. The tip of the peninsula houses the Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries .</p><br>
<p>Marjan is 178 m tall and offers a view of the entire city, the surrounding islands, and the nearby mountains of Mosor and Kozjak.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In ancient times Emperor Diocletian built his palace a few minutes walk from Marjan. This opulent palace-city was actually inhabited by up to 8,000 to 10,000 people,</p><br>
<p>who required parks and recreation space, Diocletian therefore organized some areas of Marjan nearer to the palace as a park. There is also a small rustic early 13th century AD church situated on Marjan Hill. The church is dedicated to St. Nicholas (Sv. Nikole) a favourite saint of fishermen, of which there are many in Split. Two and a half kilometres further along the path that runs along the south rim of Marjan is the fifteenth century church of St. Jerome (Sv. Jeronima). The church has an altar carved by Andrija Aleši. Built into clefts in the cliffs directly above and behind St. Jerome are a group of Renaissance hermitage caves, first used in the 15th century. On the eastern slopes of the Marjan, just above the city, is Split’s old Jewish cemetery. First established in 1573, the cemetery has over 700 graves, with readable tombstones from the eighteenth to twentieth centuries, the last burial taking place in 1945 when it was closed and protected as a monument.</p><br>
<p>Marjan has become a symbol of Split in the last century and a half, before that it was considered an ordinary part of the landscape. As the city grew, however, it was left out because of its rocky and difficult terrain, and became, in effect, a part of the wilderness next to the very center of the city. Soon the citizens started to frequent it as a picnic spot and a romantic retreat, its many beaches adding to its popularity as well.</p><br>
<p>During the Second World War, Marjan was the subject of a popular Partisan song "Marjane, Marjane", sung by the Split (and Dalmatian) members of that anti-fascist movement and was reportedly a favorite song of resistance leader and future president of the new SFR Yugoslavia, Josip Broz Tito. Indeed, the flamboyant Partisan leader was so fond of the hill itself, he chose it as the site for the summer residence of the Yugoslav president, the Vila Dalmacija. In the 1950s, during the period of the second Yugoslavia, the Federal Government, in conjunction with local Split authorities, undertook a massive project for the transformation of the entire wild hill into a forest park. The hill was intensively forested (large parts of it were barren until then), many recreational facilities were built, including jogging tracks, a road system encircling the peninsula, a maritime research institute, the Split City Zoo (now fallen into disrepair), botanical garden (recently abandoned) and a water pipeline reaching all the way to the top of the hill. The authorities also constructed the city weather station and two "vidilice", or "look-out points", as resting places connected with a long stairway all the way to the Diocletian&#39;s Palace, the "Riva" promenade and the rest of the city center.</p><br>
<p>On the south side of the Marjan is the Meštrović Gallery housed in the former villa of Ivan Meštrović, thought by many to be one of the greatest sculptors of religious subjects since the Renaissance.</p><br>
<h2>Chronology</h2><br>
<p>8th century – The first mention of Marjan hill as Marulianus.</p><br>
<p>13th century – The hill of Marjan is encircled by a fence, and considered a municipal forest. Church of St. Nicholas built.</p><br>
<p>14th century – The City of Split Statute prohibits the cutting down of trees on Marjan.</p><br>
<p>15th century – Establishment of the church of St. Jerome and of Hermitage caves.</p><br>
<p>1573 – Establishment of the Jewish Cemetery</p><br>
<p>19th century – The first wider trails on the eastern part of the hill are constructed.</p><br>
<p>1852 – The first afforestation of Marjan with Aleppo pine in the Jewish cemetery is undertaken.</p><br>
<p>1884 – Systematic afforestation of Marjan thanks to diligence and activism of Professor Juraj Kolombatović.</p><br>
<p>1903 – On 9 May, Professor Juraj Kolombatović founds the Marjan Association and becomes its first president. The same year, the association builds a road from Veli Varoš to Marjan’s first peak.</p><br>
<p>1905 – With voluntary contributions, the association builds a trail to Marjan’s second peak. Two belvederes at prominent places of the hill are constructed.</p><br>
<p>1907 – The association reconstructs the old pathway to the first peak, behind the Jewish cemetery, as stairways.</p><br>
<p>1908 – In the course of two years, several belvederes are built on the south side of Marjan at a location called Fairy’s Courtyard (Vilini dvori).</p><br>
<p>1909 – Fire destroys a wooden inn on the first peak, but thanks to Varoš people a forest fire is prevented.</p><br>
<p>1910 – The association builds two bowling pitches at Marjan’s first peak.</p><br>
<p>1910 – With membership contributions, the Marjan Association rebuilds and reopens the restaurant on the first peak.</p><br>
<p>1911 – The Marjan Association has more than 400 members.</p><br>
<p>1912 – The children’s playground is built.</p><br>
<p>1913 – The association sets signs and labels with Croatian and Latin names of plants.</p><br>
<p>1913 – The association opens a new large restaurant with a 200 sqm hall and a balcony for musical performances.</p><br>
<p>1914 – Marjan forest is thriving so much that it has to be thinned to a healthy density.</p><br>
<p>1918 – The forest extends over more than 75 hectares.</p><br>
<p>1919 – Dr Jakša Račić becomes the association’s president and remains so for the next 25 years.</p><br>
<p>1921 – The association obtains a large number of palm trees from the island of Vis and plants them along the Račić pathway.</p><br>
<p>1922 – With the help of the municipality, stone stairways from the coast up to the Jewish cemetery are built, while the path to St Nicholas is paved and flanked by a stone wall.</p><br>
<p>1923 – Rabbit hunting is organized on the northwestern cape.</p><br>
<p>1924 – The biggest rabbit chase in Dalmatian history is organized on Marjan, and 350 rabbits were caught in three days.</p><br>
<p>1924 – Works on the renovation of another peak begin. Bishop Dr Klement Bonefačić visits the site and donates 400 dinars to the Marjan Association Fund. The cement factory Dalmatia from Kaštel Sućurac donates 10 cement wagons. In August of the same year, the works are completed along with the access to the first peak made of 378 white stone steps.</p><br>
<p>1925 – The Natural History Museum is founded; a large restaurant hall is divided to host the collection of stuffed mammals, birds, fish and shellfish. Professor Umberto Girometta becomes the curator of the Museum.</p><br>
<p>1926 – The zoo is opened, welcoming 3000 visitors on the very first day.</p><br>
<p>1926 – The entire forest of Marjan is encircled with a high wire fence.</p><br>
<p>1927 – A great drought affects Dalmatia; the association mulches Marjan plants with stones to prevent dehydration and organizes the supply of the irrigation water. Only one third of the plants are lost.</p><br>
<p>1928 – With the support of the city administration, a marine aquarium with 9 lighted pools is built in the eastern part of the Museum.</p><br>
<p>1929 – The association places several stone panels throughout Marjan with Luka Botić’s and Jerolim Kavanjin’s interpretive texts.</p><br>
<p>1939 – Guests from a cruise ship donate an alligator to the zoo.</p><br>
<p>1941 – The last Assembly of the association is held prior to the Occupation and the Second World War. The association has 45 members.</p><br>
<p>1944 – The painter Emanuel Vidović becomes the president of the association.</p><br>
<p>1945 – After the war, the only surviving inhabitants of the zoo are the alligator and a black bear. The Old Jewish Cemetery is closed and preserved as a monument. Jewish burials begin to take place in the Jewish section of the Lovrinac cemetery in the east of the city.</p><br>
<p>1951 – The association obtains work permission from the Communist authorities.</p><br>
<p>1953 – A campaign is conducted and the association succeeds in bringing water to the first peak.</p><br>
<p>1954 – New huts are built on Bene and on the Saddle (Sedlo), while the Belvedere at the Jewish cemetery gets a kiosk–buffet.</p><br>
<p>1963 – A large exhibition about Marjan and its significance is held in the City Museum.</p><br>
<p>1964 – Through the persistent effort of the association, Marjan is declared an area of Special Protected Nature.</p><br>
<p>1970 – A Marjan forest census records 115,265 trees.</p><br>
<p>1975 – The zoo is visited by more than 120,000 people.</p><br>
<p>1977 – The association opposes the construction on the slopes of the hill and succeeds in preventing a broadcasting center (RTV) being built on the northern slopes.</p><br>
<p>1978 – The Marjan Association is decorated for its merits with the Golden Emblem of the City of Split.</p><br>
<p>1990 – In collaboration with the Association of Friends of Cultural Heritage, the Marjan Association restores the church of St. Nicholas.</p><br>
<p>2001 – The association issues a comprehensive publication on Marjan, with experts compiling chapters on history, forestry, sports, traffic, geology and the overall meaning of Marjan for Split.</p><br>
<p>2004 – The association renews a stone house in the Botanical Garden built in 1913 (it now houses the Public Institution for the Management of Marjan Forest Park).</p><br>
<p>2004 – Thanks to the association and Split MPs, the Croatian Parliament votes the establishment of the Public Institution for the Management of Marjan Forest Park, whereby the City of Split becomes responsible for the management of Marjan Forest Park.</p><br>
<p>2005 – The association restores Marangunić walkway.</p><br>
<p>2007 – At the request of the association and other organisations and individuals, bars on the First Belvedere plateau are fixed preventing cars parking in the area.</p><br>
<p>Lake Torrens is an ephemeral salt lake in central South Australia.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Lake Torrens lies between the Arcoona Plateau to the west and the Flinders Ranges to the east, about 65 km north of Port Augusta and about 345 km north of the Adelaide city centre. The lake is approximately 30 m above sea level, with a maximum depth of 1 m. It is located within the boundaries of Lake Torrens National Park.</p><br>
<p>Lake Torrens stretches approximately 250 km in length and 30 km in average width. It is Australia&#39;s second largest lake when filled with water</p><br>
<p>The Lake Torrens catchment is an endorheic basin, having no outflow of water to the ocean.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Approximately 35,000 years ago, the lake water was fresh to brackish, but has become increasingly saline since. who was one of the founders of the South Australian colony.</p><br>
<p>The lake filled in 1897 and again in April 1989. It has a thin salt crust with red-brown clays beneath, which are soft and boggy. The area around the lake is sparsely vegetated with samphire, saltbush and bluebush.</p><br>
<h2>Protected area status</h2><br>
<h3>South Australian government</h3><br>
<p>The full extent of Lake Torrens has been protected as a national park under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972 since 1991.</p><br>
<h3>Non-statutory arrangements</h3><br>
<p>Lake Torrens is part of an area known as the Inland Saline Lakes which has been listed in the Directory of Important Wetlands in Australia since at least 1995.</p><br>
<p>Lake Torrens has been identified by BirdLife International as an Important Bird Area known as the Lake Torrens Important Bird Area (IBA) because it supported up to 100,000 breeding banded stilts during the major filling event of 1989. It may occasionally support over 1% of the world population of red-capped plovers. cinnamon quail-thrushes are also common in the IBA.</p><br>
<p>Saria Island  is an island in Greece. It is a rocky, volcanic island along the northern edge of Karpathos, separated from it by a strait 100 m  wide. It is part of the Dodekanissos archipelago.</p><br>
<p>Administratively, it is part of the community of Olympos. The 2011 census reported a resident population of 45 persons. It has little plant or animal life, and has a number of sharp cliffs. Although only shepherds live on Saria now, the ruins of the ancient city of Nisyros can be found here. It is also a breeding area for Eleonora&#39;s falcons.</p><br>
<p>Although the name is subject to dispute, scholars link it with the name of an ancient Greek Princess named Katherine from a line of Saria royalty. Greek legends say she was as beautiful as Helen of Troy and so they named an Island after her majesty. On the island of Saria, it is recorded history that a kingdom existed named Mikri Nisyros.</p><br>
<p>Waianae Range  is the eroded remains of an ancient shield volcano that comprises the western half of the Hawaiian Island of Oahu. Its crest, at Kaʻala, is the highest peak on Oahu at 4,025 ft.</p><br>
<p>Like the neighboring Koolau, the Waianae Range is not a mountain range in the sense most people are familiar with, as the mountain range as a whole was created from a single volcano rather than for example plate tectonics.</p><br>
<p>The oldest lava dated from the volcano are about 3.9 million years old. About 3.2 million years ago, the volcano&#39;s activity changed, the rate of eruption started to decrease and the composition of the lava erupted from the volcano changed. The volcano is thought to have last erupted about 2.5 million years ago.</p><br>
<p>When active, the Waianae volcano&#39;s center of activity was at present-day Lualualei Valley. Intense erosion on the western flank of the mountain has destroyed much of those flanks. Thus, the mountain today is much smaller than it was when the volcano was active.</p><br>
<p>While the western part of the mountain has been destroyed by erosion, the eastern part is still in a youthful stage of erosion. This is considered somewhat strange by some geologists since the western part of the volcano is on the leeward side of the island; thus, most rain falls on the eastern side of the volcano. Given this information, more erosion would be expected on the eastern portion of the mountain. One theory to explain this erosion pattern is that a large landslide cut away the western portion of the volcano. The faults from this huge landslide weakened the rock, making the western part of the mountain much more susceptible to erosion than the eastern side.</p><br>
<p>Opeongo Lake is a lake in the Ottawa River drainage basin in the geographic townships of Bower, Dickson, Preston and Sproule in the Unorganized South Part of Nipissing District in Northeastern Ontario, Canada. It is the largest lake in Algonquin Provincial Park and the source of the Opeongo River. The lake&#39;s name comes from the Algonquian word opeauwingauk meaning "sandy narrows".</p><br>
<p>It has three arms, North, East and South, joined by narrows into a Y shape. The total area is 58 km&sup2, the average depth 14.6 m and the maximum depth 49.4 m. The primary outflow is the Opeongo River at the southeast tip of Annie Bay on the East Arm, controlled by the Opeongo Lake Dam, which flows via the Madawaska River to the Ottawa River.</p><br>
<p>A store with camping supplies and dock, Algonquin access point 11 and the Harkness Laboratory of Fisheries Research are located on Sproule Bay at south end of South Arm and are all accessible from Ontario Highway 60. Consequently, the lake is a popular starting point for canoe trips into the interior of the park.</p><br>
<p>Opeongo lake was to have been the endpoint of the Opeongo Line, one of a series of settlement roads built to open up this section of the province. It was the endpoint of the Whitney and Opeongo Railway, used for logging operations until the 1920s. Portions of this route now form part of Ontario Highway 60 and the access road connecting the lake to Highway 60.</p><br>
<h2>Tributaries</h2><br>
<p>Costello Creek</p><br>
<p>Sproule Creek</p><br>
<p>Von Creek</p><br>
<p>Graham Creek</p><br>
<p>Hailstorm Creek</p><br>
<p>Happy Isle Creek</p><br>
<p>Wright Creek</p><br>
<p>Cameron Creek</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Battle Mountain is an igneous mountain in Rappahannock County, Virginia. The eastern slope is generally considered to reside in the unincorporated town of Amissville, Virginia while the western slope is generally considered to be within Castleton, Virginia. The entire mountain including the summit lies within private property at an elevation of 1,162 ft (354.2 m).</p><br>
<h3>Tectonic Emplacement and Geochronology</h3><br>
<p>It is an extinct volcano dating to the Neoproterozoic and is approximately 704 million years old (+/- 4 million years) as dated using the U-Pb zircon crystal geochronology method. It is a unit of the Robertson River Igneous Suite and is located within the Blue Ridge anticlinorium. This volcanic formation was a result of crustal extensional rifting of the eastern Laurentian margin of the supercontinent Rodinia. This was the beginning of a chain of events that ultimately gave birth to the precursor Atlantic, the Iapetus Ocean at 550 Ma during the Ediacaran–Cambrian transition.</p><br>
<h3>Geochemical Evolution</h3><br>
<p>The volcano is composed of alkali feldspar granitic rock of the Robertson River Igneous Suite. This includes felsic complex material such as biotite, hornblende-biotite, magnetite, and alkali granitic rock including rhyolite on the eastern slopes of Battle Mountain and the adjacent (and geologically related) Little Battle Mountain (elevation 937 feet).</p><br>
<h3>Paleaogeographic Reconstruction</h3><br>
<p>A unique geological feature of Battle Mountain is that the western slope outcrops are composed entirely of alkalai feldspar granite, while the eastern slope up to and including the summit is entirely rhyolitic. This provides strong evidence of a theorized lateral explosive eruption event centered on the eastern slope at approximately 704 Ma as proposed by Woolman (2016). Further mathematical geology evidence which supports this theory includes a paleaogeographic reconstruction of the mountain by Woolman utilizing artificial neural networks and Markov chain geostatistical models including period climate condition-based soil erosion rates, Kirkby&#39;s hillslope movement evolution equations and recursive biogeochemical soil erosion rates in felsic granitic conditions. The result was the digital reconstruction image shown on the left, indicating what Battle Mountain may have looked like 704 million years ago on the western slope.</p><br>
<h3>Only Known Volcanic Mountains in Rappahannock County, VA</h3><br>
<p>Battle Mountain and Little Battle Mountain are the only mountains in Rappahannock County which are known to be volcanic in origin, and are among the oldest visibly intact extinct volcanoes in Virginia. White quartz boulders and smaller fragments are common on and around Battle Mountain, a result of molten silica that was contained in the rhyolite lava and granitic magma that formed the volcano. As quartz is extremely hard relative to feldspar granite and rhyolite, it tends to remain present on the surface while the softer granite it was embedded in wears away into the soil.</p><br>
<h2>Access</h2><br>
<p>The nearest unincorporated town is Amissville, Virginia at approximately 4 miles away. Access to the mountain and the summit must be negotiated with local landowners first as the mountain, including all portions of the July, 1863 battlefield exists entirely on private property.</p><br>
<p>Markopoulo  is a village and a community in the southeastern part of the island of Cephalonia, Greece. It is situated at the southeastern foot of Mount Ainos, at about 250 m elevation. The community consists of the villages Markopoulo , Kateleios  and the beach village Kato Kateleios . Markopoulo is located 1 km east of Chionata, 2 km west of Kateleios, 2 km northwest of Kato Kateleios, 6 km west of Skala and 9 km southwest of Poros.</p><br>
<h2>Historical population</h2><br>
<h2>History, agriculture, tourism</h2><br>
<p>Stone Age remains have been found nearby in the Sakkos cave, in Skala and in the Mounda Bay area. At nearby Mavrata there is a tomb from the Mycenaean period while Roman remains visible just behind the main Agia Barbara beach indicate settlement in Kateleios over 2000 years ago. Although Mounda Bay is very shallow there is also some evidence that Kateleios was a port and trading centre during the Venetian period, witnessed by the remains of an old pier or mole in the bay.</p><br>
<p>Like virtually all of Kefalonia (except the Fiskardo area), the villages were destroyed during the 1953 Ionian earthquake and have been rebuilt since. Remains of the old church bell-tower exist in Kateleios. Until quite recently Kato Kateleios was a small collection of fishermen’s houses and huts, some of which are still inhabited, and the main town was further up in the valley, at Ano Katelios. Tourism development in recent years saw the construction of restaurants, homes, and rented apartments near the sea-front, which is now considered to be the main settlement of Katelios.</p><br>
<p>The bay of Katelios is a designated marine Natura 2000 site. Due to the shallow waters of the bay and the scattered reef outcrops, the flow of sea water is slower than surrounding waters, making it an ideal habitat for the protected sea grass Posidonia oceanica, which occupies a significant portion of the bay. The beach of Mounda, on the east of the bay and at a short distance from Katelios is a nesting area for the Loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta). Sea turtle nests in this area have been monitored and protected since 1988, while an environmental station operates at the town&#39;s old school.</p><br>
<p>Katelios is the only area on the island of Kefalonia with a river that has water flowing throughout the year. The small river flows from the hills around the area of Pastra. Until the middle 19th century, water mills were in regular use, and their remnants can still be seen between Pastra and Katelios.</p><br>
<p>The Calhoun Mine is perhaps the oldest and best-known mine in Lumpkin County, Georgia. When gold was discovered in Lumpkin County in 1828, which led to the Georgia Gold Rush in 1829, it was discovered on 239 acre owned by Robert Obar. After at least two intermediary sales, the land was purchased by Senator John C. Calhoun of South Carolina, who was also the 7th Vice President of the United States. Calhoun started a mining company to mine the land and later allowed his son-in-law Thomas Green Clemson, the founder of Clemson University, to manage it. The ore deposit was a very rich deposit and, according to an 1856 letter from Clemson to his brother-in-law, was still producing significant quantities of gold nearly 30 years after its initial discovery on the land. This mine - along with the Consolidated Mine and the Loud Mine - were some of the most productive mines in the Georgia Gold Belt.</p><br>
<p>In 1879, the Calhoun Mine passed from the Calhoun family. In 1939, after the deposits at the Calhoun Mine were long thought to be depleted, a small pocket was discovered and mined. After that excitement, things became quiet once again at the mine. The Calhoun Mine was added to the National Register of Historical Places and named a National Historic Landmark in 1973.</p><br>
<p>Calhoun Mine is located about 3 miles (5 km) south of Dahlonega off State Route 60 and on the eastern side of the Chestatee River. It lies on a hill on the west side of the road - about 0.6 miles (1 km) off the road - on the opposite side of the ridge, on private property.</p><br>
<p>The mine was designated a National Historic Landmark and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973, for its nationally significant role as an instigating element of the Cherokee removal. The mine was located directly adjacent to Cherokee land, and the conflict with miners illegally working Cherokee lands contributed to calls for removal, and the eventual displacement of, the Cherokee from their lands.</p><br>
